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UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

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UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

A Record of Travel and Exploration in
North- West Mongolia and Dzungaria

DOUGLAS CARRUTHERS

GOLD MEDALLIST OF THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY

WITH THREE CHAPTERS ON SPORT

J. H. MILLER, F.Z.S.

AND A FOREWORD BY

THE RIGHT HON. EARL CURZON OF KEDLESTON,

G.C.S.I., Etc.

fV/TB i68 ILLUSTRATIONS, PANORAMAS
AND DIAGRAMS, AND 6 MAPS

VOL. II.

SECOND EDITION

LONDON

HUTCHINSON & CO

PATERNOSTER ROW
1914

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CONTENTS

VOL. II

CHAPTER XI

PAGE

SPORT ON THE PLATEAUX OF MONGOLIA . . 319

By J. H. Miller

CHAPTER XII

THE KIREI OF THE ALTAI, THE CHILDREN OF PRESTER

JOHN 351

CHAPTER XIII

DZUNGARIA — THE LAND OF UNREST . . . 374

CHAPTER XIV

FROM THE ALTAI TO THE ILI VALLEY , . . 397

CHAPTER XV

A WINTER JOURNEY IN SOUTHERN DZUNGARIA ;
ALONG THE "IMPERIAL HIGH-ROAD" FROM
KULJA TO KUMUL ..... 424

CHAPTER XVI

HAMI, OR KUMUL 472

CHAPTER XVII

THE KARLIK TAGH 494

vi CONTENTS

CHAPTER XVIII

PAOB

BARKUL, THE BOGDO-OLA, AND ACROSS DZUNGARIA 527

CHAPTER XIX

SPORT IN THE HIGHLANDS OF DZUNGARIA . . 548

By J. H. Miller

CHAPTER XX

THE GAME OF THE PLAINS . . . . , 580

By J. H. Miller

APPENDIX A

THE DUNGANS . 613

APPENDIX B

THE ANCIENT STRANDS AND BARRIERS OF SAIRAM

NOR ........ 619

APPENDIX C

THE SUMMITS OF KARLIK TAGH . . . . 62I

APPENDIX D

THE LIFE-ZONES OF NORTH-WESTERN MONGOLIA

AND DZUNGARIA ...... 624

APPENDIX E

TERMS OF THE RUSSO-MONGOLIAN PROTOCOL . 632

BIBLIOGRAPHY 635

INDEX 641

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

VOL. II

The Mongolian Wild-Sheep, Ovis Ammon

By J. G. Millais Frontispiece

FACING PAGE

Typical Sheep-ground in North-west Mongolia By J. H. Miller 322

A Mongol Type ....

Camp on the Mongolian Plateau in August

After the Stalk ....

A 61-IN. Ovis Ammon

A Three Days' Bag

Loading up the Ammon Heads

A Kirei Falconer ....

A Kirei Maiden ....

Kirei in Winter Quarters

Camp beside the Upper Kobdo River

Kirei Women going to a Wedding

Mistresses of the Yurts

The Kobdo Lake-country and the Mongolian Altai. The Land
of the Kirei (Panorama) By D. Carruthers 6- /. H. Miller

Typical Scenery in the Border-Ranges of Dzungaria. In the
Tian Shan Mountains . . . . By J. H. Miller

Mongol Coiffure. A Woman of the Khalka Tribe .

Nomads of the Plains. Khalka Mongols . By J. H. Miller

A Charkhar of Rank ........

The Barkul Mountains, a Portion of the Southern Border-
Range of Dzungaria . By D. Carruthers & J. H. Miller

The Expedition Crossing Dzungaria

By D. Carruthers and J. H. Miller

Makandaroff and his Pets .... By J. H. Miller

Camp Breakfast ......... 404

In Chuguchak . . . . . . By J. H. Miller 408

Scenery near the Entrance to the Dzungarian Gate . . 414

Early Morning by Sairam Nor ...... 420

via

•

> 1 1 >

326

GUST

}1 >i

330

By T. P. Miller

334

By J. H. Miller

338

• • • •

342

By J. H. Miller

346

>t »»

352

35&

. By J. H. Miller

358

• • • «

362

• • • t

366

By J. H. Miller

366

370

378

384
388

392

400
400

404

VI u

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

By J. H. Miller

Ching
and J. H. Miller

PACINO

Chinese Road-Guards . . . . . By J. H. Miller

The Chinese Imperial High-road near Sairam Nor
KuM Chaza, a Guard-house on the Pei-lu, or Northern High-
road . . . . . . . By J. H. Miller

DuNGAN Boys ..........

Bactrian Camel in Summer Coat ......

Bactrian Camels in Winter Coat ......

DZUNGARIA IN MiD-WINTER. ThE BaSIN OF SaIRAM NoR

By J. H. Miller
The Leader of the Caravan .
Bactrian Camel .....
Type of Kirei Kirghiz ....
KiREi and Bronco .....
Tamarisk Mound .....
Dead Poplar Forest in the Basin of Chi-Ku-

By D. Carruthers
The Walls of Kumul ....
The Khan's Residence ....
A Street Scene in the Chinese Quarter
A KuMULiK Girl .....
KuMULiK Musicians
A Taghlik of Karlik Tagh
The Khan's Falconer ....
A By-lane in the Chanto Town
The Highest Peaks of the Karlik Tagh
Denuded Slopes on the Southern Flanks of
Pasture-land on the Northern Side
Rough Climbing in the Karlik Tagh
Gorge in the Sandstone Foothills of Karlik Tagh

By J. H. Miller
The Village of Bardash. A Typical Mountain Hamlet in the
Southern Valleys of Karlik Tagh

By D. Carruthers and J. H. Miller
The Main Ridge of Karlik Tagh, from the North

By D. Carruthers and J. H. Miller

The Taghlik Smile. Natives of Bardash

By D. Carruthers and J. H. Miller

A Taghlik Girl By J. H. Miller

A Taghlik Farmstead. On the South Side

OF Karlik Tagh .....,,

Taghlik Yurts. On the Northern Pastures

OF Karlik Tagh .....,, ..

By J. H. Miller
By J. H. Miller

THE Range

PAGE
428

442
446
446

450
450

454
458
458
464

468
474
474
478
482
486
486
488
488
496
496
496
500

502

506

508
514

522
522

5^2

Valley

562
. 568
By Rowland Ward, Ltd. 568

• 572
. 576

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ix

FACING PAGE

River Terraces at Narin ....... 526

The Barkul Basin (Panorama) By D. Carruthers & J. H. Miller 532
The Sacred Lake of Bogdo-ola ...... 538

The Salt-encrusted Plains of Central Dzungaria . . 544

Deep-cut Ravines in the Dzungarian Plains . . . 544

J. H. Miller and a Day's Bag of Wild-Sheep . . . 550

Sheep-ground of the Upper Borotala . . By J. H. Miller 556

Flower-strewn Meadows
Wild-pig, Shot in the Upper Borotala

{Sus scrofa nigripes)
Roe-deer and Kalmuk Hunter
Ovis Ammon Karelini, in Winter Coat
In the Urta Saryk Valley
The Muzart Glacier in the Tian Shan
Crossing the Karakorum Plateau (Altitude 17,000 ft.)

By J. H. Miller 578
Part of our Bag at Takianzi ...... 582

Dzungarian Gazelle {Gazella subgutttirosa) in Winter Coat

By Rowland Ward, Ltd. 586
The Saiga Antelope {Saiga taytarica) . . By J. H. Miller 596

Central Dzungaria in Winter . . • ,, ,, 602

A Domesticated Kulon and its Chanto Owner ,, ,, 602

The Kulon, or Wild-Ass of Dzungaria {Equus

hemionus typiciis) .....,, ,, 606

MAPS

FACING PAGE

Sketch-map of the Siberian-Mongol Frontier, showing Racial

Distribution on the Russo-Chinese Borderlands . . 350

PAGE

Alpine Region of Karlik Tagh . . . . . .623

Map showing Life Zones of North-west Mongolia and Dzungaria 625
The Karlik Tagh and Barkul Mountains . {End of Volume)

DIAGRAMS

PAGE

A Section of the Karlik Tagh from North to South, through

THE Central Portion of the Range . . . •521

The Ancient Strands and Barriers of Sairam Nor . .619

Outline of Karlik Tagh from Kumul ..... 621
View of the Highest Peaks of Karlik Tagh, from Ridge South

OF Upper Bardash Valley . . . . . .621

X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

INDEX TO IMPORTANT SUBJECTS IN THE ILLUSTRATIONS

Animals, Big-Game
Dwellings
dzungarian scenery

Hunting Scenes

KiREI

Lakes
Mongols .

Mongolian Scenery
Mountains
Native Types .
Physical Features
Towns
Vegetation

FACING PAGES
338, 342, 346, 550, 562, 568, 582, 586, 596, 602, 606

358, 522

358, 37S, 400, 414, 420, 438, 450, 496. 532, 544

556, 572, 602

334. 338, 346, 550. 562, 568, 582. 596, 606
• 352. 356, 358, 366, 370. 458
. 370, 420, 432, 450, 538
326, 384, 388, 392
322, 330, 362. 370
370, 378, 400, 496, 506, 532, 576, 578
356, 366, 384, 392, 428, 442, 458, 482, 486, 508, 514

. 414, 496, 500, 502, 526

408, 474, 478, 488

362, 468, 562

UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

CHAPTER XI

SPORT ON THE PLATEAUX OF MONGOLIA
By J. H. Miller

The north-west corner of Mongolia has many beauties
in summer. Its round-headed bluffs of dark shale,
slashed with snow-drifts, rise from rolling downlands
covered with a luxurious growth of short, yellow-green
grass, brightened by brilliant patches of gentians,
crocuses, edelweiss, and other Alpine flowers. Its
innocent-looking, but treacherous, bogs give birth to
sparkling streams, which form the numerous rivers that
flow through barren foot-hills on to still more arid plains,
and terminate in large saline lakes. Groups of the
dome-shaped tents of the nomads are scattered over the
plateaux, and, wherever grass is plentiful, along the
edge of both river and lake ; countless flocks and herds,
the only wealth of their wandering owners, dot this
matchless pasture-land, and from a cloudless sky a
brilliant sun beats down upon plain and plateau.

In winter this land of extremes presents a very

different picture ; everything is then locked in the

grip of the frost fiend ; snow lies everywhere, except on

the exposed tops which the pitiless wind blows clear,

II— I 319

320 UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

causing it to form deep drifts on the leeward side. All
animal life is either hibernating, or seeking the pro-
tection of the lower foot-hills. The camps of the hardy
herdsmen are now clustered in sheltered hollows ; their
owners' time is largely spent in waging war against the
wolf-packs, which nightly harry their sheep-folds, and
in interminable tea-drinking, smoking, and chatting
round a meagre " tezek " (dung-fed) fire.

What appeals most strongly, however, to the sport
and nature loving Briton is that, among the higher
plateaux of the Little Altai, — the range which forms a
part of the Russo-Chinese frontier, — roams one of the
finest beasts in nature, the father of all sheep, the Ovis
ammon. An adult ram of this gigantic sheep stands
over 50 in. at the shoulder, and carries horns that exceed
60 in. in length and 20 in. in girth, and, with the dry
skull, weigh 45 lb. No other beast, for its size, carries
such a weight of horn. There are few species of big
game that appeal more to the heart of the hunter and
lover of the wild regions of the earth, than an old ram in
his upland solitudes. Apart from the magnificent horns
he carries, his unrivalled wariness tests the resources of
the hunter to the utmost. Luck plays a very small
part in sheep-hunting ; skill, patience, and perseverance
are required to a high degree.

Every hunter has his own ideas as to what species
of big game makes the finest trophy, and forms the most
worthy quarry. It may be the giant moose of Alaska
in his primeval forests, or the shaggy markhor on his
beetling crags, or the graceful koodoo on the plains of
Africa. But, in me, the elusive wild-sheep always
produces the greatest thrill.

The existence of the Ovis ammon was first made

SPORT ON THE PLATEAUX 321

known to Europe by William Rubruck, who, in his
account of a journey to Mongolia in the middle of the
thirteenth century, mentioned seeing a " kind of wild
animal which is called ' arcoli,' which has quite the body
of a sheep, and horns bent like a ram's, but of such a
size that I could hardly lift two horns with one hand ;
and they make of these horns big cups." The first
European hunter to shoot this great wild-sheep was Major
Cumberland, who, on information received from that
remarkable traveller, Mr. Ney Elias, journeyed to the
Altai and procured several specimens. That was in
1895, and since then not more than one hunter a year,
on an average, has visited this region ; so that a really
large " ammon " head still remains one of the rarest
and most prized of trophies.

It was late August when we reached Achit Nor, one
of the numerous lakes which dot the Mongolian plateau.
Every few days a severe snow or hail storm swept over
us, which, together with the frequent " honking " of
wild geese overhead, warned us that winter was not
far distant, and that, if we wished to hunt the ammon
and get across the passes of the Great Altai before they
were closed, we must not delay. Achit Nor, at this
season, presented a remarkable spectacle with its teeming
thousands of wild-fowl. Undoubtedly great numbers
breed there in the large area of marsh and reeds at its
northern end. The greater portion, however, were
merely using it as a resting-place on their long flight
southwards from their summer haunts in Siberia.
There were swans, two kinds of geese, and many varieties
of duck, gulls, divers, and waders, including both green
and golden plovers.

Every morning and evening large numbers of duck

322 UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

and geese " flighted " out on to the boggy grass-land.
Owing to the laws of Buddhism, which prohibit the
unnecessary taking of life, and, no doubt, partly through
laziness, the natives on no account molest these wild-
fowl. The birds therefore show a marked indiffer-
ence to the presence of man, allowing a horseman to
ride within 50 yards of them, or less, without doing
more than raise their heads. But, as we soon discovered,
an attempt to approach them on foot was courting
failure, for they would not allow us within 200 yards.
The reason for this is that a Mongol hardly ever walks.
Even to go from one yurt to another, a distance of
perhaps not more than a few hundred yards, he will
always mount a horse, which is kept ready saddled
and tied to his yurt for the purpose.

We devised a scheme at length, by which we were
able to secure several fine fat geese with a rook-rifle.
One would ride and lead the other's horse, taking a
line which would bring us within 50 yards of the flock.
Then the second, who had been walking concealed behind
the led horse, would fall to the ground behind some
slight cover, and get a steady shot, while the eyes of the
birds were on the retreating horses and man.

In this district we came across an encampment of
Russians and Tartars. They had been travelling about
during the summer, trading with the natives, and had
collected large quantities of wool, hides, and marmot-
skins, in exchange for cloth, tobacco, cooking utensils,
etc., and sometimes for money. They were working
for one of the large merchants at Biisk. The profits
must have been very great. Take the marmot-skins,
for instance. They are purchased in thousands at an
absurdly low price (10 to 20 kopeks each), and sent

SPORT ON THE PLATEx\UX 323

to Europe, where they are dyed and sold as imitation
sable. The wool is purchased from the natives for
3 to 4 roubles per poud (36 lb.) or the equivalent in
kine, and sold later for double that amount. The
trade is largely in the hands of the Chinese, who sell
to the Russian merchants, which minimizes the profits
of the latter. However, Russia has already inserted
" the thin end of the wedge " in Mongolia, and with
the new state of affairs the entire trade of this vast
country will fall into the hands of Russia.

Properly administered, there is no reason why this
ideal grazing country should not become one of the
leading stock-rearing countries of the world. If a
branch line to Kobdo, from the proposed Kiakhta-
Kalgan railway, is built, the whole of North-west Mongolia
will be brought within rail-communication of the European
market, and this land of great possibilities will have
received the stimulus it requires. There is every likeli-
hood of this line some day being continued through
to Tomsk, via the thriving town of Biisk, engineers
having pronounced the Altai highlands to present no
serious engineering difficulties.

Having changed our mixed caravan of oxen and
horses for eight camels, on August 28th we started
again for the frontier post of Suok, hoping there to get
hold of some hunters. A march of six hours took us
out of the Achit plain, well up into the foot-hills of the
Altai. Marching up a dry water-course, we were struck
by the arid nature of the hills. Above the valley
bottom, where there was a little scrub and coarse grass,
the hillsides were entirely devoid of growth, with the
exception of the ubiquitous " burtsa " — a small bush,
which when dry makes excellent fuel. On the following

324 UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

morning three hours' march took us out of this in-
hospitable nullah on to a broad, grassy upland, where
the three small Chagan Nor lakes sparkled in the sun,
and where herds of horses and camels gave life to the
scene. On this upland we came across numbers of
derelict ammon horns, showing that we had reached
their winter range, A day's march due west on to
the higher ground, and we should no doubt have seen
them in the flesh, but we had decided to go farther
along the hills towards Suok, where we had hopes of
obtaining hunters before starting up towards the main
divide.

The word " suok " is Turkish for cold, and you may be
pretty certain that, if a nomad of Central Asia indicates
a place by such a name, it is no place for a European
in winter. Though marked large on some maps, it is
merely a small Chinese frontier post on the main Kobdo-
Biisk route. When we were there it consisted of no
more than half a dozen yurts, occupied by a small
official and a few disreputable soldiers. They had no
uniform but a blue " jumper," which had a glaring
red " disc " on the breast, covered with Chinese
characters ; and their arms embraced every description
of antique gas-pipe. The head-man was most kind
and obliging. We drank tea with him in his stuffy
little yurt, overheated with a Russian stove, while he
looked at our passports. Their size and colour im-
pressed him, but I doubt very much if he could read
them, though he pretended to do so. Chinese etiquette
demands that a call should be returned immediately.
The snow was being driven before a biting north-easter
at the time, and I fancy that he did not particularly
enjoy his quarter of an hour in a flapping, draughty tent.

SPORT ON THE PLATEAUX 325

On informing him that we intended to spend a few
days hunting in the neighbourhood, he advised us to
visit the chief of the Altai Uriankhai, Hving in the
Chagan-gol Valley, two marches farther on, who would
be able to provide us with horses and hunters. He
said that there were none in the vicinity of Suok.

The storm raged all through the next day, pre-
venting us from moving. The wind howled through
the tents, driving the snow under the flaps, and us into
our blankets, where we spent the day reading and
trying to keep warm.

September ist broke still and clear, but three inches
of snow covered the ground, and this produced a terrible
glare in the powerful sunlight. A short march over
undulating foot-hills brought us to the broad river-bed
of the Uigur, as the upper Suok River is called. We
were now close under the western end of the lofty,
rounded Bain-Khairkhan mass which fills up the area
between the Chagan-gol and Suok Rivers. The evening
was spent in rifle-practice, much to the interest of some
inhabitants, who thought it a frightful waste of ammuni-
tion, but thoroughly appreciated the empty cases.
The range and accuracy of our weapons were a revela-
tion to them.

The next march was done very rapidly ; we changed
horses half-way at a small encampment, named Belota.
After crossing the low, western end of the Bain-Khairkhan
ridge, we suddenly came upon the Chagan-gol Valley.
At this point it is broad and sandy, with several small
lakes linked by a sluggish stream. The sides of the
valley are composed of old moraines, through which
the stream has cut its way. Away to the south in the
direction of Dolto Nor, the head of the Kobdo River,

326 UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

the lofty, jagged peaks of the Great Altai rose up and
formed a marked contrast to the featureless country,
through which we had been marching for the last few
days.

We pitched our camp close to a cluster of yurts.
In exchange for a few safety-pins and a yard or two
of scarlet ribbon, we got as much milk and fuel as we
could want. On the following morning we saw an
imposing-looking cavalcade approaching : it turned out
to be the chief of the Altai Uriankhai and his retainers.
He was a cheery old soul, and plied us with questions
incessantly. How far was it to London ? How many
horses, cattle, and sheep had we ? What did we pay
for our wives in England, and how many did we each
have ? To all these and many more questions Makan-
daroff found suitable replies, which, if not truthful,
certainly did not belittle us in any way. As the success
or failure of our ' sheep '-hunt depended on getting
on the right side of the old fellow, we presented him
with an old telescope which had been brought from
England for such a purpose. His pleasure was almost
pathetic, and, when it was focussed on to some horses
a mile away, he giggled with childish delight. From
that moment our success, as far as he was concerned,
was assured. We were promised horses and men for
the following day.

As usual, we had the greatest difficulty in con-
vincing the men that it was only the old rams we wished
to shoot, on account of their horns. This was more
than they could grasp. What use could we make of
" koshgor " horns ? Perhaps we made them into
medicine, as the Chinese did with the maral horns.
But if it was the horns we wanted, why didn't we pick

A MONGOL TYPE.

326]

SPORT ON THE PLATEAUX 327

Up those which were lying about on the ground ? We
could collect a hundred in a day, and an old koshgor
running wild over the hills was so hard to get near.
At last, after much chatter, a grizzled old veteran pushed
his way to the front. He understood what we wanted.
Some years before he had been, he said, a caravan-man
to two white koshgor-hunters ' like ourselves. He was
a marmot-hunter by profession, and had plied his trade
for some thirty years. Though he had never bothered
much about the " rams," it being much easier to get
within shot of females with his old muzzle-loader, yet
he knew where they were, and guaranteed to take us
to a place where we should see large numbers every day.
The nearest way to reach the best place which he knew
of was to retrace our steps as far as Belota and strike
up west from there.

While Carruthers and Price spent the day after
wild-fowl, I took a man with me and climbed on to the
plateau-like top of the Bain-Khairkhan ridge, which
protrudes eastwards from the main divide between the
Suok and Chagan-gol Rivers, in a solid round-headed
block rising 8,000 or 9,000 ft.

It was delightful on this invigorating autumn day,
with the sun shining down from a clear still sky, to
move from one ridge to another, spying the ground
ahead from each vantage-point, whilst lying comfort-
ably on the short, springy turf. Some wild life was
almost continually in view. We saw marmots, snow-
cock, a wolf, a small herd of ewes and young, and five
young rams that day. I decided to try and shoot one
of the rams for meat, but it was terribly difficult stalking
country, and, in spite of the most snake-like wriggUng,

1 Probably Prince Demidoff and Mr. St. George Littledale.

328 UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

300 yards was as near as I could get. The shot resulted
in a broken front leg. We pursued it for many miles,
but to try and catch up with an ammon, which has no
more serious wound than this, is pretty hopeless work,
and eventually we lost the tracks on a shale slope, and
reluctantly had to give it up.

On the way back to camp we almost rode on to the
top of six gazelle feeding in a hollow among the hills.
My man advised a drive, as the surest way of getting a
shot. From this and subsequent experiences, I have
come to the conclusion that gazelle are one of the few
beasts that can be successfully driven. They are foolish
and inquisitive animals, and can be moved in almost
any direction by men who understand their habits.
Making a wide detour, I took up my position on a narrow
neck connecting the small depression with a much
larger one. The Mongol, leading the two horses, then
began to move slowly towards my position. Instead of
at once clearing out of the neighbourhood, the gazelle
began to move slowly towards me. They would trot
for a short distance and then wheel round for a look
at the man, making a very pretty picture as they bounced
about on all four feet at once, whisking their tails, and
extending the white hair of their rumps as a danger-
signal. When they came within rather less than 100
yards of me, I knocked one over, and, at once getting
into a sitting position, doubled up two more, just like
shot rabbits, as they streamed past at about sixty yards.
For running shots like this, a "256 Mannlicher, with a
Lyman aperture sight, is, to my mind, the ideal weapon.
As trophies they were of no account, being only yearling
bucks ; but their meat was a welcome change from the
everlasting mutton. The gazelle, with the exception

SPORT ON THE PLATEAUX 329

of the roe-deer, is the finest of all the Central Asian
game, from an edible point of view.

Next day we started off for our hunting-ground
under the guidance of the old marmot-hunter. We had
only six light horseloads of baggage with us, the bulk
of the heavy stuff being left with the old chief to be
picked up on our return. A severe blizzard came on
before we had gone far, necessitating an early camp ;
in the teeth of the storm the horses made very slow
progress.

This is typical of the weather we experienced in the
Altai during the end of August and the beginning of
September. There would be a few glorious days, then
a sudden drop in the temperature and a blizzard of
Arctic severity, followed by another fine spell. We
spent a chilly night of it with the thermometer at 18**
Fahr., and a howling wind tugging at the tent- ropes.
The morning broke clear, revealing a land of whiteness,
and the dark tail of the storm, disappearing to the south-
east. Another long day's march due west, up and
down over the low outer hills, brought us to where
the Uigur stream divides into several heads. Our camp
was pitched in a sheltered position, with abundance of
tezek, close to two small tarns which were full of
grayling.

We were now on our hunting-ground, and what
hunter is there who has not experienced that " first
night on a new ground " feehng ? As he lies in his
blankets, pondering over the possibilities of the morrow,
hope, doubt, success and failure, all chase through his
mind. Old red-letter days and days of blank disaster
are raked up and gone over in detail. At length he
falls into a troubled sleep, with visions of colossal

330 UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

" heads " which will not allow themselves to be ap-
proached. But in the morning the necessity for action
clears away all this, and he starts out full of confidence.

To hunt any of the big sheep of Central Asia success-
fully, it is of the utmost importance to make a really
early start from camp. As Makandaroff put it in his
very picturesque language, ** What time hunt mouton
nlcessaire rise early. Mouton be very good general.''

Wild-sheep generally spend several hours during the
middle of the day, especially during the hot summer
months, in lying down in one of those unapproachable
positions which the hunter learns to know only too
well. A very favourite site is on a shale-slope, which
harmonizes perfectly with their own colour, near the
crest of some commanding, round-topped hill, though
not actually on the top, for that would advertise their
position to their enemies. The wind, curling over the
crest to them, secures them on their only blind side, for
few beasts possess a more highly developed sense of
smell. In every other direction their restless gaze
wanders incessantly over a vast expanse of smooth
rolling grass and shale, across which, as a rule, it is
quite useless for a human being to attempt to approach
them. If sheep have been driven into rougher and
more broken ground, as is often the case in the Tian
Shan, where it is impossible for them to take up a
position commanding an extensive view, they have
the almost uncanny knack of selecting a resting-place
where, owing to the formation of the ground, the wind
converges upon them in all directions. For this reason
the horse-shoe-shaped head of a valley is much favoured
by them. It is principally persecution, from time im-
memorial, by their most dreaded enemies, the wolves,

T< » ."^

1 «

C^.

x^--f 'iff

SPORT ON THE PLATEAUX 331

that has made them the wonderful tacticians they
are. But the hunter has not always to contend against
such insurmountable difficulties. In the early morning,
and again in the evening, they leave their impregnable
position to graze. The rolling nature of the ground
which they then have to pass over gives the hunter
his opportunity. Whilst some succulent feed holds them
in a fold of the ground, a close approach is often possible.
On several occasions I have got within fifty yards or
less of a herd.

I do not intend to go into details here about the
equipment for a hunting-trip to the Altai. I shall
confine myself to suggesting one or two labour-saving
methods.' mV

When sheep-hunting it is, to my mind, of the greatest
importance to be equipped for a night out. It often
happens that, in following a wounded beast, one gets
benighted many miles from camp, or perhaps one does
not find game till the evening, when it is too late, or
the ground is unsuitable for a stalk that day. In either
case it is a waste of time and labour to ride, perhaps
ten miles, back to camp and return again in the morning.
What I consider the best equipment for a night's bivouac
is either a tente d'abri, or a light ground-sheet, in case of
bad weather, a small cooking-pot, in which one can
pack one's provisions, such as bread, tea, sugar, cold
mutton, salt, bovril, and chocolate, according to in-
dividual tastes ; a large mug and a spoon. A small
fiarer, or spirit-lamp, should be carried, as there is
never any wood on sheep-ground, and tezek may
not be handy, or may be sodden by a storm. These

* Major Swayne. in his book Through the Highlands of Siberia, goes
<ieeply into the question of equipment.

332 UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

things can easily be carried on the hunter's horse,
leaving plenty of room on one's own for coats, blankets,
etc' By this means, the disturbing feeling of having
to hurry can be done away with.

It is always worth while to take two men out with
you, so that the second man can be left in charge of
the horses while you and your hunter stalk the sheep.
In this way the horses can be brought up by signal,
and much time and unnecessary fatigue saved. I can,
however, only recommend this provided that your
" second horseman " is used to the ways of the European
hunter, or is above the average in intelligence. Other-
wise he may prove a source of great danger and annoy-
ance. More than once has a stalk been ruined by the
second man, who, having got tired of waiting, and
wanting to see what was happening, has ridden boldly
on to a skyline, and frightened the game. And the
reverse of this can try one's temper pretty severely,
especially after an unsuccessful stalk. It is exasperating
to signal for the horses to be brought up and have no
reply, and be compelled to trudge back to where they
have been left, only to find one's " second horseman "
fast asleep.

I seemed to have been asleep only an hour or two,
when Mac woke me up by pulling the tent-flaps back
and saying that the horses were being saddled and it
was time to be moving off. At five on a September
morning, 8,000 ft. up, with 15° of frost in the air, one
does not feel one's best, and it is advisable to get over
the discomfort of crawling out of the warm blankets

^ I strongly recommend a pair of leather saddle-bags, also a Cossack
saddle, which can be purchased in nearly any Russian town, and is quite
the best for hunting or caravan work.

SPORT ON THE PLATEAUX 333

and pulling on frozen boots as quickly as possible.
Luckily, no other dressing is necessary, with the ex-
ception of donning a heavy overcoat. After gulping
down the usual unsatisfactory early meal and seeing
that the saddle-bags were stocked with provisions,
cartridges, etc., I mounted a shaggy little Mongol pony,
and, followed by the old hunter and another " local,"
made for some high ground to the north. At the same
time the two other parties moved off in different direc-
tions. We looked like cavalry patrols starting out to
reconnoitre an enemy's position.

A piercing cold wind seemed to cut right through
me, in spite of a sheepskin coat and Canadian mits,
as we crunched our way up a half-frozen stream-bed in
the cold grey morning light, that made me look with
longing eyes towards the small patches of sun which
were just tinting the highest points. The indifference
with which the Mongols and Kirghiz treat both the
heat of summer (and in the thin atmosphere of the
plateau the sun has terrific power) and the frightful
cold of winter is almost incredible. It is not an un-
common sight to see young children turned naked
outside the yurts, in all weathers, to get hardened !
This Spartan treatment leads to the " survival of the
fittest," and has produced a people whom it would
be hard to beat for indifference to climatic extremes.

On reaching the head of the valley, the old man
indicated an outcrop of rock as being a suitable place
from which to start spying. Leaving the " second
horseman " behind, we crept forward to this vantage-
point. A large stretch of country lay before us. We
were on the edge of a considerable plateau composed of
undulating grass-land, with outcrops of rock here and

334 UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

there, and patches of shale on the tops of the low ridges.
The whole land, with the exception of the steep slopes
facing south, was thinly covered with snow, while the
numerous small tarns and boggy hollows were frozen
over.

To my mind, one of the chief joys of sheep-hunting
is the opportunity one has of using the glasses and
telescope. Owing to the openness of the country, and
clear atmosphere, vast stretches can be spied from any
elevated position, and game of some kind is constantly
in view. I had been lying there for half an hour or
so, revelling in the warmth of the newly risen sun, and
carefully quartering the country ahead with the glasses,
when suddenly they revealed some brown smudges
just below the crest of the ridge, a good two miles away.
Changing the Zeiss glasses for the telescope, I was able
to make them out to be eleven " rams," lying down.
However, they were against a background of such
protective colouring, and the distance was so great,
that it was impossible to say if they were really big
ones or not. The old man, after looking through the
telescope, which I had wedged between two rocks,
pronounced them to be " kara " (black), and there-
fore " bolshoi koshgor " (big rams). I did not, however,
attach much importance to his decision, as all natives
will try and persuade one that game is " big " in order
to encourage one to shoot some for meat.

As we watched, they exhibited one of those sudden
panics that I have often noticed among " sheep " and
ibex ; these frights are caused by a sudden change in
the wind, which leaves them open to attack in some
direction. After rushing madly downhill for a short
distance, away from that now dangerous skyline, they

:»'« • ■*.

' ■';

■- ^ >**

'^^^i

- -^

.0:t

%,,! \

X' ■-

SPORT ON THE PLATEAUX 335

seemed to recover from their fright, and, after gazing
up wind for a few minutes, one by one, they began to
paw the ground and lie down again.

A lengthy discussion now took place as to our next
move ; it was carried on in a mixture of Russian and
Turki. The old fellow had picked up a few words of
the former from wool-merchants and traders, and of
the latter most Altai Mongols have a smattering, from
contact with their neighbours, the Kirghiz. Having
decided on our line of approach, we retreated to the
horses, and, by taking advantage of the folds of the
ground, were able to ride over the greater portion of
the intervening distance.

On reaching the rounded end of the hill on which
the " rams " were lying, though still half a mile down-
wind from them, we again left the horses and pro-
ceeded on foot, our objective being the crest of the ridge
almost above the herd. Constantly trying the wind,
which was very light, with particles of wool from the
old hunter's coat, we reached our new vantage-point.
Choosing a cluster of rocks, I slowly raised my head inch
by inch above the crest till I was able to get the glasses
on to the herd, and then my heart gave great throbs
of excitement as, for the first time, I realized that
before me were as fine a lot of heads as any hunter
had ever looked upon. As the old Mongol scanned
them his wrinkled face slowly broadened into a grin.
Turning to me with an "I told you so ! " look,
he said, *' Bolshoi koshgor," at the same time clasping
his thigh with both hands to indicate the girth of the
horns. They were now about 400 yards below, and
slightly to our left, on a gently sloping hillside. At
first sight it looked as if a closer approach were out of
II — 2

336 UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

the question, and I was making up my mind for a long
wait, when a more careful scrutiny revealed a narrow,
shallow trench that ran from the crest down the other-
wise smooth hillside. Giving the hunter strict injunc-
tions to stay where he was, and not to move till I fired,
I slung the telescope over my shoulder, and, dragging
my rifle after me, began to worm my way down the
trench. It was an anxious and painful crawl, or rather
wriggle, the cover being none too good, and the stones
unusually sharp.

At last, with bleeding hands and aching frame, a
point was reached which I judged to be as far as it
was prudent to go, so, making a small screen of stones
before me, I peered through them. What a sight it was
that riveted my gaze ! I was actually within shot of
eleven old ammon rams, the smallest of which had
horns certainly not less than 50 in. in length, and the
largest a good 60 in. Wedging the telescope between
the stones, I looked them all over thoroughly, but,
among so many beauties, it was some time before I
could decide which carried "the head of heads." It is
probably harder to judge the size of the horns of sheep
than any other species of game ; in profile it is im-
possible to estimate their size at all accurately. In
hurried shots this often leads to your shooting at some
small five-year-old beast, whose horns bend out sharply
from the head, and therefore catch your eye first,
when there may be several really fine heads in the
herd, whose " nip in " escapes you in the hurry of the
moment.

However, on this occasion I had ample time, and
eventually decided in favour of an old fellow whose
horns seemed of great thickness, " nipped in " close to

SPORT ON THE PLATEAUX 337

the head, and terminating in a sHght downward bend.
I was still about 250 yards from them, rather too far
to make certain of a lying shot, so I decided to wait till
they got up to feed. It was now 8.30, well past their
usual feeding-time. I take it, that the reason the old
rams become so irregular in their habits at this
season is that, having spent all the summer grazing
on the finest grass, they become so fat and lazy towards
autumn that they only feed for a very short time, and
at irregular intervals during the day.

For a good hour I lay there with the snow-water
slowly working its way through my clothes, in the
constant dread that the wind would shift, and the old
man would get tired and show himself (always a great
danger with these people), or that some other cause
would rob me of this chance of a life-time. At a moment
like this one's feelings are much too acute for enjoy-
ment, but I shall always treasure the recollection of
that hour, spent in such close proximity to those hoary
old patriarchs, as among the finest of my hunting ex-
periences. They seemed to be in no hurry to move,
they were evidently enjoying to the full the warmth of
the sun. Every now and then one would get up, nibble
at a tuft of grass, and then, after pawing the ground, lie
down again. Some were lying with their necks stretched
out along the ground, as if resting themselves from
the terrible weight nature has imposed upon them.
Others were sitting up, and chewing the cud, keenly on
the look-out. The ram I had chosen was lying broad-
side on to me, so that I was. only able to see his horns
well when he now and then turned his head for a look
in my direction.

My patience was almost exhausted, when one by one

333 UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

they got up and began to feed. My ram was the third
to rise, and, as he stretched himself broad-side on, I
let drive with my "318, the answering thud teUing me
all I wanted to know. In a second they were pounding
downhill, never even stopping for the usual backward
look ; another shot as they disappeared only succeeded
in knocking up the snow under the belly of the last.
Running down, I at once found an enormous blood-
spoor, and knew that, with any luck, the big one was
mine. The old hunter looked very crestfallen as he
came up, thinking that I had made a mess of the whole
thing, but, on seeing the blood, his spirits at once revived^
and, by placing his head on one side and closing his
eyes, he wished me to understand that we should very
soon find the ram lying dead.

On the arrival of the horses, we mounted and fol-
lowed along the clearly marked trail at a good pace.
We had covered some four miles of undulating country,
and the blood-trail was getting less and less, when
suddenly, as we rode too carelessly over the top of the
rise, up jumped the ram from among the rocks as if
nothing was the matter, giving me no time to dismount
and shoot. After going a short way, he slowed down
to a walk. I now had another look at him, and could
see that I had hit him rather too far back in the ribs ;
it shows the extraordinary vitality of these beasts,
that, in spite of a terrible wound and enormous loss of
blood, he could travel about four miles, and still keep
on his legs.

We now sat and watched him as he made his way
down a long slope, across a stream, and up the farther
hillside. But here the slope was too much for him,
and he soon lay down again. Dark clouds now begaa

. 0^

^,j

"bir

SPORT ON THE PLATEAUX 339

to roll up from the north-west, and I realized that, if
that head was to be mine, matters must be brought to
a speedy conclusion. Another long detour brought
us above him again, and, after another uncomfortable
downhill slither, the tops of his horns appeared not fifty
yards off. The recognition was mutual ; but, before he
could do more than jump to his feet, a copper-capped
bullet pierced his shoulder and he went sliding down
the steep face of the hill. He carried a marvellous
head, even finer than I had hoped. The horns were
61J in. in length, 20J in girth at the base, and had a
spread of 37J in. He stood 53 in. at the shoulder, and
his age was estimated at fifteen years.

In autumn coat the coloration of an old amnion
ram is very striking. The nose is white, forehead and
cheeks grey-brown, neck and upper part of the body
dark chocolate, freely sprinkled with white hairs, which
slightly predominate on the shoulders and along the
back ; this gives them a very grizzled appearance.
The belly and rump-patch are white, legs grey-mottled
above and white below the knees. In full winter coat
an ammon ram is of a dirty-white colour on the body
and neck, and pure white on the nose, legs, and rump.
The ammon differs from nearly all other large Central
Asian sheep in that he does not grow a long neck-ruff.
In summer the coat is exceedingly short, but in winter
it lengthens all over the body and neck to about two
inches.

The two men were delighted with our success, and
chatted incessantly as they phed their knives — not, I
fear, because I had got what I wanted, but with thoughts
of the meat orgy that was to follow. While keeping
an eye on them, to see that they cut a good long head-

340 UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

skin, I tackled the cold mutton and bread in my saddle-
bag. It was then nine hours since we had left camp,
but, in the excitement of the chase, hunger had been
forgotten.

In spite of a flurry of snow and an icy wind, we
were a cheery trio as we returned to camp. In the
intervals of much snuff-taking, the old hunter kept up
a flow of talk in his mixture of Mongolian and Russian ;
the fact that I only understood an occasional word did
not bother him in the least.

Carruthers and Price had both seen a good many
sheep, but nothing of any size ; so next day, while they
started off early, I saw to the cleaning of the head, and
then moved our camp some five miles farther up the
valley.

Our men now began to give trouble ; though they
had been with us only three days, they said they wanted
to return. Their excuses were various, the chief one
being that their presence was needed to protect their
families and flocks from the wolves. This is one of the
chief difficulties one has to contend with in Central
Asia ; the natives are so independent, and, in the out-
of-the-way parts, care so little for money, that we
frequently had the greatest difficulty in persuading them
to accompany us. As long as you are merely travelling
straight through the country, everything goes smoothly ;
one chief hands you on to the next, and you are treated
magnificently ; but directly you wish to stop or to go
off the main tracks, there is difficulty. The only thing
to do, on entering a new country in which you intend
to hunt, is to go straight to the head-man of the district,
even if it be some distance out of your way ; make friends
with him by giving him a good present, such as a cheap

SPORT ON THE PLATEAUX 341

pair of field-glasses, or an automatic pistol, and request
him politely but firmly, to supply you with men for as
long as you wish to remain in his district. On this
occasion I had all the men up and pointed out, through
Makandaroff, that if there was any more grumbUng,
we would report the matter to the authorities at Suok,
and have them severely beaten. This quieted them for
the time, but they continued to work in a very half-
hearted manner.

Carruthers did not get back to camp till a late hour
that night. As it began to grow dark we became a
little anxious, for to spend the night out without food
or fire, and with 20 degrees of frost, would be anything
but a cheerful experience. As large a fire as possible
was kept going with the limited supply of dry horse-
dung at our disposal, and every half-hour both barrels
of the i2-bore were fired off. At about nine o'clock
horses were heard approaching, and Carruthers and his
men rode into camp. It appeared that a band of
'* rams" had only been found late in the afternoon, and
that by the time he had got within shot it was getting
dark. He brought in one head, and had hopes of re-
trieving, on the following day, two more beasts that he
had hit, it being too late to follow them up at the time.

It was one of those glorious, crisp, still mornings,
which one associates with the plateaux of Central Asia
in their most pleasant moods, as we sallied out on the
following day, and I felt thoroughly in tune with the
inspiring scene around me. As the old man and I
rode along over the springy turf, the shrill whistle of
the marmots resounded on every hand. By the autumn
these jolly animals have amassed such quantities of
fat, preparatory to their winter sleep, that they present

342 UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

a most comical appearance. Their short legs are almost
invisible, and, as they make for their holes, they look
just like large muffs rolling down the hillside. Though
these animals, along with the snowcock, add greatly
to the picturesqueness of the scene, they are no friends
of the hunter. On several occasions, whilst after
sheep or ibex, my stalk has been spoilt either by the
whistle of a marmot, whose quickness of eyesight is
almost unequalled, or by the weird cries of a covey
of snowcock as they sailed out over the valley.

During the morning we came across a marmot-
hunter, a wild-looking figure clad in tattered sheep-skins,
and armed with an ancient long-barrelled muzzle-loader,
with the usual forked rest. During the summer these
hunters wander about the hills, carrying nothing in
the way of food except a goat-skin sack of " kummis "
and a small bag of salt, tied to their saddles. They
rely almost entirely on marmot-flesh for their meat,
only occasionally killing a wild-sheep, when an easy
opportunity presents itself.

There are two methods of hunting the marmot
adopted by these people ; one is merely to make a low
breastwork of sods within 30 yards or so of a well-used
burrow, and lie patiently behind it till a beast appears ;
the other requires slightly greater skill and energy.
On locating the marmot outside his hole the hunter
advances boldly towards it at a rapid walk, carrying his
gun in his right hand, and incessantly waving a bunch
of white sheeps'-wool attached to a stick, or a fox's
brush, in his left. This unusual sight so excites the
curiosity of the marmot that he will often sit bolt-
upright at the entrance to his hole, and allow the hunter
to approach close enough for a hurried shot.

SPORT ON THE PLATEAUX 343

We covered an enormous stretch of country that
day, and saw large numbers of sheep ; they were mostly
females, but one herd of thirteen rams contained two
or three beauties. However, the first day's success
was not destined to be repeated. They had evidently
been disturbed, and had taken up such an unapproach-
able position, both with regard to wind and the open-
ness of the country, that, though we tried every artifice,
they eventually got our wind, and made tracks for the
higher ground. We came across a great quantity of
derelict horns that day ; in one small valley below a
cliff I counted fifty in about half a mile ; it is in places
like this that most of the horns are met with, the reason
being that the driven snow lies deep in such places
in winter. At that season packs of wolves are con-
tinually harrying the sheep ; a herd, in its mad rush
for safety, gets caught in a drift ; the females and
young rams, unencumbered with 40 lb. weight of horn,
make good their escape, while the old rams get
stuck fast and are killed. This accounts for the pre-
dominance of fair-sized horns lying about in certain
localities.

On reaching camp, I saw that Carruthers' hunter
had found and brought in the two heads shot the day
before, one of them being a beauty of 55 in. Carruthers
himself, soon afterwards, returned with another fair
head of 50 in. — a pretty good two days' work. A council
was held that night, at which we decided that, as we
still had such enormous distances to travel before
reaching our winter quarters at Kulja, we could not
afford any more time for hunting the sheep. It
was very disappointing to have to turn our backs on
the old rams just when we had got into the cream

344 UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

of the shooting, but, considering the short time we
had been hunting, we had done fairly well.

However, we were destined to spend one more day
in the Uigur Valley, as on the following morning Car-
ruthers developed a severe chill, necessitating a day in
bed. Price went out hunting, and I contented myself
with taking photographs and measuring derelict heads.
Not far from camp I came upon a remarkably fine
wapiti head with both horns attached to the skull ;
though it was very much dried up and bleached, it
measured 50 in. in length, 47J in. in spread, and 10 in.
in girth above the burr, with twelve well-developed
points. I was told by hunters that the snow lies to
such a depth in winter in the forests on the Russian
side, and the wapiti are so hard put to it for food, that
they come right up on to the sheep ground, where
large areas are blown clear of snow.

A knowledge of the present distribution of Ovis
ammon typica, as far as it is known, may be of use to
future travellers, especially to those who contemplate
pioneering on new hunting-grounds. Undoubtedly, in
by-gone ages, the distribution of these sheep was con-
siderably wider than it is at the present day. At the
period of Central Asian history when the whole land
was one great battle-field, and every able-bodied man
was drafted into the ranks of the vast hordes which
swept backwards and forwards under the banners of
Jenghis and other conquerors, people could have had
little time for hunting, and, in all probability, lived
in compact communities for safety's sake ; this allowed
the sheep to roam undisturbed over large areas to-day
overrun by the nomads.

In more recent times the introduction of firearms

SPORT ON THE PLATEAUX 345

into the country has undoubtedly helped to thin out
the game ; but, with the exception of the wapiti, this
is only a minor cause for their steady decrease, both in
number and distribution ; the primary cause is un-
doubtedly the rapid increase of the population on the
Chinese-Russian frontier. Not only is the birth-rate
among the Kirghiz increasing, but yearly large numbers
are driven over to the Chinese side by the advancing
Russian settlers. This necessitates the opening up of
new grazing-grounds year by year, so that the game is
slowly but surely being driven into higher and more
inaccessible regions. The contraction of their grazing-
grounds is the chief cause of the steady decrease in
the numbers of the wild-sheep of Central Asia.

The southern slope of the Tannu-ola Range, at the
point where we crossed it, was the first place where we
came upon signs of sheep, in the shape of a few old
horn-cores and fragments of horn. But they were of
great age, and I can safely say that, at the present time,
no sheep reach as far east as this. The western slope of
the Kundelun group was the first place where we came
upon fresh horns, it being the limit of their winter
range in this direction. The natives say that there are
sheep at the head-waters of the Kemchik ; the distant
view we got of the country in that direction certainly
looked most promising, both the altitude and formation
being suitable ; this would be the most northerly
limit of the ammon. To any one desirous of exploring
new ground, the frontier range between the head-waters
of the Kemchik, in the neighbourhood of Lake Kendikti,
and the Chagan-bugazi Pass, is quite one of the most
likely regions.

Between the Chagan-bugazi and Ulan-daba is the

346 UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

region which sportsmen have most visited, and, without
doubt, it is the nucleus of the ammon ground. The
higher pastures of this broad mass of ideal sheep-country
lie above the summer range of the Mongols, and rams
are still undoubtedly plentiful there. The Bain-Khair-
khan, in the days of Demidoff and Littledale, must have
abounded in rams, but to-day the natives graze their
flocks over the greater part of it, and the chances of
shooting a good head there are remote. There is ample
proof that the range of Ovis amnion typica extends
along the whole length of the Great or Mongolian
Altai, to the eastern extremity of the range.

Though more than one Russian explorer mentions
having met with sheep in the Eastern Altai, it is
to Sir Francis Younghusband that we are indebted
for by far the most interesting information on this
subject. In his remarkable journey of 1887 across the
Gobi, from Pekin to Hami, he struck the Great Altai
at its most easterly extremity in longitude 100° East.
He estimated the height of the range, even at its terminal
portion, as 9,000 ft. above sea-level, and the natives
reported grassy plateaux in the centre. These two
combinations sound suitable for ammon. Though Sir
Francis did not visit these high plateaux, where the
sheep would have been at that season (July), yet on
the outlying southern foot-hills horns were found lying
on the ground which, from their great girth of 19 in.
and general shape, undoubtedly belonged to Ovis ammon
typica.

When we were in the desert north-east of Guchen,
the Baitik Bogdo Range, a southern and somewhat
isolated appendage of the Altai, was visible to the
north. The Kirei Kirghiz, when asked what game was

SPORT ON THE PLATEAUX 347

to be found there, informed us that there were plenty
of " arkar." It would appear, therefore, that if sheep
inhabit such outlying hills as the Baitik Bogdo, and
those that Sir Francis Younghusband visited farther
east, in all probability there are some magnificent
hunting-grounds among the high plateaux of the Eastern
Altai.

The eastern extremities of the Altai and Tian Shan
ranges are only divided by a narrow strip of desert
a hundred miles in breadth ; yet it is of such an abso-
lutely barren nature as to completely prevent the range
of the Ovis ammon typica of the Altai overlapping
that of the Ovis ammon karelini of the Tian Shan.
Sir Francis Younghusband describes this gap as being
" the most desolate country I have ever seen." Directly
the lower slopes of the Tian Shan were reached, this
traveller came upon horns decidedly different to those
on the Altai side ; they were thinner at the base and
more angular than those found farther north. A mag-
nificent pair which he picked up there, and which are
still in his possession, measure 62 in. in length and
16 in. in girth. Our own experiences of the Karlik
Tagh sheep bear out his observations ; we saw con-
siderable numbers of horns in these mountains, either
lying on the ground or in possession of their owners,
all of which were similar in thickness and twist to those
we saw later on the Borotala. In their winter dress
these sheep {Ovis ammon karelini) grow a pure white
throat-ruff, 3 in. in length, a characteristic which the
Ovis ammon typica of the Altai does not possess.

The following night we encamped at Belota, and the
next day, while Carruthers took the caravan over to
the Chagan-gol, Price and I, with one man, hunted our

348 UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

way thence over the Bain-Khairkhan, this being our
last chance of seeing sheep.

Right on the top, at an altitude of about 9,000 ft.,
we saw an enormous herd of gazelle ; there must have
been nearly two hundred of them. They were principally
females and young, with a few small bucks. These
gazelle {G. gutturosa) are found all over North-western
Mongolia, north of the Great Altai, and south of the
Tannu-ola ranges ; the most north-westerly limit of their
ranges is the steppe round the Russian frontier post of
Kosh-Agatch ; from there they extend right across
Northern Mongolia as far as the eastern extremity of
the plateau. In winter they are to be found in the
sheltered valleys among the foot-hills or out on the
open plains round the lakes ; but in summer they
ascend right up into the mountains. In this respect
they differ from G. suhgutturosa, of which we saw a
great deal later, in Dzungaria. This latter species,
though occasionally found in the summer, when the
grass of the plains is burnt up, in low hills at an altitude
of 6,000 ft., never, like the former, reaches the elevated
boggy plateaux that one associates with wild-sheep.

The general colour of G. gutturosa is light fawn ; the
limbs, cheeks, under-parts, sides, and rump are white ;
there are no dark face-markings, as in most gazelle,
though the top of the muzzle is slightly darker than
the fawn of the back. The tail is short, with a brown
tip ; it is in the shortness and colour of the tail that it
differs most markedly from G. suhgutturosa ; for in the
latter it is considerably longer and black. Its horns
also differ from those of the G. suhgutturosa in being
rather thinner and shorter, and more closely and boldly
ringed ; instead of diverging directly from the skull

SPORT ON THE PLATEAUX 349

they are parallel at the bases, diverging sharply above,
with the tips gently bending inwards again.

The almost complete absence of dark face-markings
and the shortness and light colour of the tail are the
marked characteristics of the three species of gazelle
that are peculiar to the Chinese Empire. These are
G. picticaudata of Tibet, G. prjevalskii of the Ordos,
Ala Shan and Kansu, and G. gutturosa of North Mon-
golia. I do not include G. subgutturosa, with its com-
paratively long black tail, as, although it inhabits Dzun-
garia and Chinese Turkestan, it is not peculiar to China,
Russian Turkestan and Western Asia being the centres
of its distribution. In comparing the horns of the
three Chinese gazelle, I find that they have common
characteristics which differ from those of other Asiatic
species. The above description of the horns of G.
gutturosa stands also for the other two varieties, with
the exception of the backward bend, which is decidedly
more pronounced in picticaudata, and slightly more in
prjevalskii. There is also a slight difference in the
formation of the rings. For the first two-thirds of
their length they diverge very slightly, the terminal
portion bending out, and then in, sharply. Those of
the Dzungarian gazelle diverge considerably from their
base upwards with a decided backward bend, the terminal
portion forming a less pronounced hook.

Later on, we observed a few female ibex and arkar.
This range is evidently a favourite breeding-ground,
but I doubt if there are any big rams there at the present
day ; at any rate, we saw none.

After a long day in the saddle, just at dusk, we
dropped down into the Chagan-gol Valley, and found our
camp pitched some five miles below the camp of the

350 UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

Mongol chieftain, which we had left seven days before.
A long march over an uninhabited country, with no
living thing to break the monotony except a few gazelle
and an occasional wheeling vulture, took us out of the
Chagan-gol Valley and onwards towards the Great
Altai Mountains, whose snow-capped ridges now ap-
peared to rise no great distance ahead of us. We here
left the Mongols and entered the land of the Turk, for
at this point begins the territory of the Kirei, or Keraites,
a Turki race, the descendants of the people whose name
once resounded far and wide across the whole of Asia —
as the followers of that romantic, yet elusive person,
" Prester John."

CHAPTER XII

THE KIREI OF THE ALTAI, THE CHILDREN OF PRESTER JOHN

** The name of * Pr ester John ' has an attractive interest
both for those who love the romances of the nursery, and for
those who study the more sober facts of medieval history.
To both it is a puzzle and a paradox, and has given rise to
much discussion. That a Christian king and priest reigned
in an isolated far-off land over a Christian people, en-
vironed by pagans and barbarians, was a belief of most
medieval writers. Some of them fixed his residence in
Abyssinia, others in India, others again on the borders
of China. The legend gradually grew more definite as
the various envoys to the Mongol Khans returned and
brought news of their having been in contact with the Chris-
tian people, and opinion became settled that the Prester
John of history was the King of the nation of the Keraits,
a disciple of the Nestorians." — Sir H. H. Ho worth.

The Kirei ^ represent a section of the Kirghiz family,
and one of the purest branches of the great Turkish
race. In fact, if we endeavour to trace back the history
of the Kirghiz, we find that they came into existence,
— from an unknown origin, as it were, — in the Kemchik
valleys of the Yenisei basin, at a period when it would
be almost impossible to draw distinctions between the

1 There are various forms of spelling, such as Kirai, Kerrit, Kerait,
and in the earliest writings it takes the form of Crit.

11— 3 351

352 UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

Mongol and the Turkish races ; we can look on the
Altai ranges and the Kemchik pastures as being the
birthplace of a section of the Turkish race, and on the
Kirei as being the truest examples of the original
Turks.

The migrations of the Kirghiz before the sixth cen-
tury A.D. are as little known to us as are the move-
ments of other nomad peoples of those days. Their
history is mysteriously wrapped up in that of the Uigurs,
and we know little of them definitely until they rose
to some power in the sixth century, contemporaneously
with that of the Uigur Empire. Previous to that the
Kirei are supposed to have occupied the country to the
east of Lake Baikal, at the sources of the Amur ; out
of this region they were pushed, — by invading hordes of
Khitans, — southwards towards the Hoang Ho, to which
region they are assigned by most writers. I imagine,
however, that a large section of the tribe always remained
north of the Gobi, probably in the Altai, or at the sources
of the Kemchik and Abakan, where to this day Kirghiz
people are living, and amongst whom there is a tribe
called Kirei. Subsequently the Kirei formed a part of
the Naiman kingdom, which included a powerful con-
federation of Turkish tribes who overcame the Uigurs,
and ruled over the region between the Kerulun and the
Altai, making Karakorum their capital. On the
break-up of the Naiman confederacy, the Kirei took
their place as the ruling power, their chief centre being
on the banks of the Black Irtish and on the ranges
of the Great Altai. This period of their greatness
extended over both the eleventh and the twelfth
centuries. Eventually they were incorporated in the
Empire of Jenghis Khan, and, no doubt, owing to their

H«^

■5*

A KIRKl FALCONER.

352]

*V»^^^«

•^

THE KIREI OF THE ALTAI 353

fighting qualities, formed valuable contingents to the
Mongol armies as they moved westwards.

After this the nomadic Turkish tribes, as represented
by the Kirghiz and Kasaks, became more or less in-
dependent, until recently when Russia and China com-
pelled them to accept the jurisdiction of their respective
Governments,— the Kirghiz, with their kinsmen the
Kasaks,^ being now scattered over wide areas of Central
Asia from the Altai Mountains to the Sea of Aral. Of
all the different tribes of Kirghiz, however, the Kirei
hold first place in point of historical interest. Long ago
they claimed attention as being an isolated Christian
tribe in the middle of pagan Asia, the subjects of the
mysterious Prester John, — a Christian monarch who was
not only credited with vast wealth and power, but was
ruler of a kingdom of great size. No other tribe has
created such excitement in the West nor has been en-
dowed with such a wonderful reputation as that of the
Kirei at the end of the eleventh century. It is this par-
ticular period of their history that excites our interest,
and makes this account of them, at the present day,
of unusual value. We saw them in the very heart of
their own territory, we crossed and re-crossed their
country, and met with them both in their mountain-
pastures and on the sand-dunes of the low-lying plains ;
we kept constantly before us the records of their past,
and this intensified and doubled the curiosity which
their encampments would in any case have elicited.

I will briefly recount the romance of the Kirei — as
subjects of Prester John — and then state what appear

^ The true Kirghiz, also called Buruts, Kara-Kirghiz or mountain-
Kirghiz, inhabit as a rule the highland region, such as the Pamirs, parts
of the Tian Shan, and the Altai. The Kasaks, who are an offshoot from
the original stem, hold the lowlands and plains.

354 UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

to be the facts, so far as we know them, of the history
of these people. The story of the Kirei, their con-
nexion with Nestorian Christianity, and their supposed
but wholly mythical power and wealth, is typical of
the days when Asia was so little known to Europe that
any stories originating from thence quickly grew into
fabulous tales of amazement and wonder. A report,
for instance, filtered through to Europe in the early
part of the eleventh century — that is to say, at the time
when Asia first began to occupy a place in the minds
of Western people — of the conversion to Christianity of
a powerful Eastern potentate and his subjects. The
accounts, however, were so extravagant in their em-
bellishment of the might of this great Khan, yet, at the
same time, so poor in detail, that it was difficult to
decide who he was and where his kingdom was situated.
During the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth cen-
turies, the solution of the problem of the elusive
Prester John occupied the close attention of all writers
and travellers ; endless traditions and fables collected
around the name of this semi-mythical, kingly pontiff,
until it became quite impossible to separate truth from
fiction, though men continued their attempts to discover
the whereabouts of his fabulous kingdom, as if it were
an El Dorado. Many letters, supposed to have been
written by the Khan, passed between him and the
Pope, the Emperor of Constantinople, and the King of
France ; all of these proclaimed not only his greatness,
power, and wealth, but also the extent of his dominions,
exaggerating his importance to such an extent that,
although these fables were believed at the time, they,
in the end, defeated their own object, and received no-
credence.

THE KIREI OF THE ALTAI 355

The following are extracts from one of the letters
accredited to Prester John which so greatly stimulated
the imagination of the Western mind in the twelfth
century :

** Know and believe that I am the Priest John, the
servant of God, and that I surpass in riches, in power,
and in virtue all the kings of the earth. Sixty-two
kings are tributary to me. . . . We believe that we have
no equal, either for the quantity of our riches or the
number of our subjects. When we issue forth to make
war on our enemies we have borne before us, upon thir-
teen cars, thirteen large and precious crosses, ornamented
with gold and jewels. Each cross is followed by ten
thousand horsemen and a hundred thousand foot-soldiers,
without counting the men of war charged to conduct the
baggage and the provisions of the army. ... If you
can count the sands of the sea, and the stars of
heaven, you may number my domains, and reckon my
power."

The writer of this document adds that the variety
of fauna found within the dominion of the Kirei
includes the elephant, dromedary, camel, and sala-
mander ; that there are immense forests filled with
serpents, and an arid sea of sand, and their land is the
home of Cyclopes, centaurs, pigmies, giants, and canni-
bals ! Every conceivable exaggeration grew up around
this Eastern potentate and his dominion ; in fact,
Prester John and his country became a byword for
fantasy, magnificence, and prosperity.

Foolish as these accounts seem to us now, yet they
contain much truth. There is no doubt that Prester
John was a real person, and whether there existed
more than one Eastern monarch or African potentate

356 UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

who could claim to be the original Prester John is of little
consequence, as the question can never be decided ; but,
taking the accumulated evidence into careful considera-
tion, the Khans of the Kirei in the eleventh and twelfth
centuries seem to accord very closely with the accounts
of this priestly king.

It appears certain that early in the eleventh century
a great wave of Nestorian Christianity spread itself
across Asia, and, amongst other conversions which are
known to have taken place, was that of the Khan of
the Kirei and of many of his subjects. On this point
all medieval writers agree. No doubt the missionaries,
eager to show the magnitude of their conversions and
the importance of their converts, wrote these very
exaggerated accounts in the name of the Khan ; they
were doubtless products of their own imagination, and,
although attributed to the Khan, it is probable that
he was unaware of their contents. The Nestorians were
a great political power throughout Inner Asia in those
days, and the conversion of so powerful a tribe as the
Kirei would carry great weight ; it is noteworthy that
the date of their conversion marked an increase in their
power and prestige, this being the starting-point of
those conquests and invasions which brought their
name into prominence, and which spread their reputation
far and wide.

The Kirei supremacy continued until the Tartar
tribe, of which Jenghis Khan was chief, became their
rivals, and finally their conquerors. Thus the Kirei
disappeared off the field of Central Asian politics, and
the Mongols became the leading race. The subsequent
history of the two races shows clearly the manner in
which the Mongols rose to power, became Buddhists,

A KIREI MAIDEN.

356]

THE KIREI OF THE ALTAI 357

and finally fell into the condition in which they remain
at the present day. The Christian Kirei also lost their
power, but they became Mohammedans, and have now
reached a state of superiority and a degree of prosperity
far in advance of that of the Mongols.

At the present day the range of the Kirei includes
their old home on the banks of the Upper or Black
Irtish, and the greater part of the western Altai pastures,
but the territory on the east of the Altai, which must
once have been theirs, is now in the hands of the Mongol
Khans. The territorial boundaries of the Mongol chiefs
are inviolable, and the Kirei are hampered in their
desire to advance in this direction by the Chinese au-
thorities who uphold the Mongols' rights.

The main resort of the tribe is along the western
flanks of the Altai, being the area drained by the tribu-
taries of the Black Irtish. Only in one part, — in the
neighbourhood of the lakes Dolto Nor and Dain Kul,
at the sources of the Kobdo River, — do the Kirei possess
pasturages on the eastern side of the watershed of the
Altai Range. Here they own a fine country, consisting
not only of summer pastures, forests and lakes, but
also numerous sheltered valleys. This portion of their
territory is monopolized by the chief and his section
of the tribe. Towards the west the range of the Kirei
extends into the Dzungarian plains, as far as the lakes
Ulungur and Zaisan — on the Russian frontier. Farther
westwards still, along the marches of Russian and
Chinese territory, there exists a Western branch of Kirei,
separated from the Altai Kirei, and serving under a
different chief. To the southwards their boundaries are
less clearly defined. They occupy the well-protected
and low-lying valley of the Upper Irtish as their winter

358 UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

quarters, and the greater part of the Urungu Valley
falls within their territory ; beyond this, uninhabited
steppes and areas of sand-dunes allow them free progress
as far as the Bogdo-ola Mountains, the southern border-
range of Dzungaria.

We visited the Kirei in many of these localities.
Our experiences in connexion with the section of the
tribe owning the pastures of the Upper Kobdo Valley
proved to us that they spent the summer in the high-
lands around Dain Kul and Dolto Nor, and wintered
in the valley of the Upper Kobdo, at the rather high
altitude of 6,000 ft. The inhabitants of the Dzungarian
flanks of the Altai descended to the valley of the Upper
or Black Irtish for the winter. In this latter locality
we found them in the course of our journey across
Dzungaria. The Kirei were indeed fortunate in the
possession of such a well-favoured winter resort. Great
belts of tall reeds sheltered them from the winds, groves
of poplar and willow supplied ample firewood, and
plenty of grass was to be found for their animals. There
should also be good pasture for sheep, judging by the
immense flocks we came across in that country. The
encampments were pitched in snug quarters amongst
the reeds and the poplars, so well protected as to be
almost hidden from view; their existence was quickly
discovered, however, by the presence of many golden-
eagles tethered to the higher branches of the poplar
trees. Inner Asia is the home of falconry, and
the natives not only use hawks and falcons, but
even train the great golden-eagles for the purpose of
hunting such large quarry as gazelle, foxes, and even
wolves. All these Kirei seemed prosperous in themselves
and rich in flocks.

THE KIREI OF THE ALTAI 359

The Western branch of the Kirei are distributed
along the Russo-Chinese frontier of Dzungaria, and
range into the territory belonging to both nations ;
the Tarbagatai, Sair, BarUk, and Maili ranges forming
their headquarters. Some are Russian subjects, others
are Chinese, but all move freely, regardless of the de-
limitations of the political frontiers. The chief of the
Western branch, Mahmot Beg by name, is a cousin of
Jenghis Khan, chief of the Altai Kirei, and resides in
the Maili Mountains.

The southern section of the Kirei spend their time
between the valley of the Urungu River and the small
group of mountains, called Baitik Bogdo, which lie in
the plains to the south. These hills, we were told, are
favourable for summer grazing, and well watered, but in
winter migration is necessary, the nomads then trekking
either northwards to the Urungu Valley, or southwards
to the sand-dune area lying near the foot-hills of the
Bogdo-ola Range. During our journeys in the month
of February in Southern Dzungaria, we visited encamp-
ments of the Kirei in the belt of sand-dunes which
extends to within ten miles of the town of Guchen.
There we found they had made a remarkable use of a
region which, being waterless, was an impossible dwelling-
place for nomads, except at this particular season when
snow covered the ground and served as a water-supply.
Their movements being dependent upon the snowfall,
they begin to migrate southwards in November and to
go north again during the month of March. By these
means the Kirei are enabled to pasture their flocks over
the sand-belt covered with dwarf scrub and grass, and
bordered, along its northern edge, with forests of saxaul.
Their encampments presented a curious appearance.

60 UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

hidden away in a hollow of the dunes, or sheltered
amongst the giant saxaul bushes. The yurts were
closely grouped and the flocks, which consisted chiefly
of sheep and goats, were well guarded from the attacks
of wolves ; they had a few camels, but their horses they
had left behind them in the Baitik Mountains.

This particular section of the Kirei, who really
belong to the Altai district, are exhibiting a tendency
to extend their boundaries farther to the southwards.
Whether they had been pushed out by increase in the
population, or for what special reason they had come to
this country, we were unable to ascertain. From all
appearances, they were discontented with their lot,
wishing either to return to the main Altai or to make a
permanent home on the Bogdo-ola. The desire to move
elsewhere was, no doubt, caused by the relative poverty
of their territory, as compared with that of the rest
of the tribe. The Baitik Mountains cover, at the best,
only a small area ; they support, besides the Kirei, a
small sedentary population of Torgut Mongols, and,
being of no great altitude, any appearance of desiccation
would quickly make itself felt by these people. More-
over, the existence, within view, of the untenanted
range of the Bogdo-ola must be very tantalizing to
them ; for this reason the Kirei yearly renew their
endeavours to establish themselves on those inviting
pastures. Every winter a certain number succeed in
reaching the foot-hills, where they spend a few months
peacefully, without let or hindrance ; but in the spring
they must pack up and trek northwards, otherwise the
Chinese soldiery is sent out to harry them.

The Kirei of the Altai are under the jurisdiction of
the Amban of Sharasume, to whom they pay a nominal

THE KIREI OF THE ALTAI 361

tax, as well as the tribute paid to their own chief. Those
of the tribe who migrate in winter to the Bogdo-ola
Mountains in Southern Dzungaria, are taxed by the offi-
cials of Guchen for the use of their winter pasturage.
We came across a few of the latter, who complained to
us of ill-treatment at the hands of the Chinese ; but they
themselves were in fault, having considerably overstayed
the time allotted to them. We found others who had
avoided interference by claiming that they were Russian
subjects.

This digression, in relation to the early history
and to the present-day distribution of the Kirei, is
necessary on account of our having, at this juncture,
arrived at the frontiers of their country.

We will now resume the thread of the narrative and
return to the spot where we first came in contact with
these people. On leaving the hunting-grounds of the
Uigur plateau a break occurred in the usual routine of our
j ourney . Survey work was stopped by the speed at which
we were forced to travel, and excused by the compara-
tively well-known nature of the country through which
we were now passing. Winter was fast approaching, as
shown by the fact that, in the month of September,
our camps were repeatedly under snow ; we therefore
hastened to cross the Great Altai Range, which lay
between us and the warm lowlands of Dzungaria.
Pressing forward across the plateaux that lie in the
extreme north-western corner of Mongolia, we found
ourselves, in mid-September, approaching the lower
foot-hills of the Altai Mountains. This country was a
fine one, good for the shepherd, and pleasant to traverse.
Rivers of clearest water ran across the downlands, and
frequent larch groves gave the region a less bleak aspect

362 UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

than was the case with much of the country over
which we had been travelhng.

On September 14th we camped close to an upper
tributary of the Kobdo River, amongst Mongols, un-
mistakable by their untidiness and dirt ; on the follow-
ing day, without any change of scenery, climate, or
political division, we found ourselves amongst a new
people — the Kirei. This may not seem of importance to
the general reader, but in reality it represented an ethno-
graphical change of great and unusual interest. We had
in a day passed out of the Buddhist-Shammanist world
into the Mohammedan world — from the Mongol to the
Turk. In fact, w^e now entered, at a distance of 3,000
miles from Mecca, the farthest outpost of Islam in
Asia.

I well remember, while riding along with our Mongol
horsemen, accosting the first follower of the Prophet
whom we met in the course of our journey, and re-
marking on the natural politeness with which he
invited us to his yurt. Within, a fine old gentleman
— a perfect Turkish type — rose to greet us. With a
word of welcome, which in other Mussulman countries
could only have been extended to co-religionists,
he bade us be seated. His dwelling was a yurt of the
ordinary construction, yet very different in appearance
to that of the Mongol yurts. Here we not only felt at
home, but greatly appreciated the cleanliness of our
surroundings and the true hospitality and exquisite
manners of our host.

These well-made yurts, covered with white felt, were
in direct contrast to the black, torn, and ragged tents
of the Mongols. The interior spoke of prosperity, and
showed a distinct appreciation of comfort. Clean carpets

THE KIREI OF THE ALTAI 363

of felt covered the floor, and many household belongings
stood around the sides — gaudily-coloured boxes, a bed,
quilts and cushions, saddlery and a falcon ; while the
right-hand side of the tent displayed a profusion of
cooking-pots, kettles, kummis-bags, and other signs of
a commissariat, such as would arouse the envy of any
Mongol housewife. No little Buddhist altar adorned
the head of the yurt, no lazy priest lounged on the seat
of honour, while, in place of poorly clad and disreputable-
looking inhabitants, we were delighted to see rosy-
cheeked children, and plump, healthy-looking women,
clad in becoming costumes of black and white. The
men, too, were of remarkably fine build as compared
with the Mongols. There was almost an appearance
of opulence in these Kirghiz encampments ; in com-
parison with the Mongols and Uriankhai, these Kirei
tribesmen might be described as "gentlemen-rovers,"
rich in flocks and herds, well-housed, owning a fine
country, and with sufficient leisure at their disposal to
indulge in horse-racing and in falconry.

The comparison between the low Mongol soldiery
who accompanied us and these lordly Kirei was in-
structive. All spoke of a higher standard of life, and a
superior moral code ; we realized at once the immense
social gap which lay between these two people. The
special type of our Mohammedan host was well preserved ;
he was obviously Mussulman, and through him we realized
the far-reaching influence of rehgion and the power it
possesses of engraving itself upon the character of a
people. Here is no decadent form of Islam, it is
one and the same faith as followed by the nomads
of Arabia or North Africa. The world-wide uniformity
of this belief has created an absolute unity of type.

364 UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

All pointed to the fact that the Mohammedan faith
formed the basis on which stood the superiority of the
Kirghiz over the Mongols, and convinced us that their
well-being and progressiveness emanated from the same
cause. Independence, cleanliness, and abstinence were
the traits which stood out most strongly, and were
those in the most direct contrast to the character of
the Mongols. A greater contrast still is shown in the
wide difference which exists in the social conditions of
these two nomad peoples. Whereas the Mongols are
serfs living under the control of their rulers and of
their priests, the Kirghiz are a free, self-governing
people, forming a powerful democracy where all men
are more or less equal.

The power of Islam is chiefly noticeable here, in
that these two people were originally of the same Sham-
manistic faith. Yet Islam alone possessed the power
of up-rooting the " Black Art." The influence both of
Christianity and Buddhism on the Shamman tribes has
been mentioned in Chapter VII. Neither of these re-
ligions has proved a success ; Islam, on the other hand,
has had such an effect on the Turki tribes that their
ancient belief in Shammanism is now only discernible
in certain rites and customs. The " Baksa," or " wonder-
doctor " of the Kirghiz, for instance, represents the
Shamman priest under a new cloak ; but he is now sup-
pressed by the Mullahs, and has no longer any religious
power.

We came across, even in this extremely remote
corner of the Mohammedan world, several men who
had made the pilgrimage to Mecca, and later on, in the
course of our travels, we made the acquaintance of
Mahmot Beg, chief of the Western Kirei, who had

THE KIREI OF THE ALTAI 365

made the pilgrimage in person, together with his
wife. It is of interest to note the route taken by
pilgrims from the Altai to Mecca. A road- and- water
journey of 800 miles leads them northwards to the
Siberian railway, the railway carries them to Odessa
on the Black Sea— the meeting-place of all pilgrims
from Central Asia — and from there they take ship to
Jedda. The return journey is generally made by the
new railway from Medina to Damascus, whence they
reach the coast at Beirut.

So great is the force of religion amongst the followers
of the Prophet that, although they owe allegiance either
to the Emperor of China or to the Tsar of Russia,
they look neither to Pekin nor to St. Petersburg,
for they consider Stamboul to be their rehgious
and political capital. On many occasions we met
Moslem missionaries from Constantinople " on tour "
amongst the outlying encampments of nomads in
Central Asia. Railways and telegraphs have brought
even these far-removed colonies into closer communi-
cation with the Protector of their faith, and with the
centre of their belief; greater ease of transport is
likely to advance still further the cause of Islam in
Asia.

Our sudden introduction into the Moslem world
made us realize the fact of the remarkable force and
progress of Islam in Central Asia. Along the frontier
between Islam and Buddhism, there is to be noticed a
steady pressing forward of the Mohammedan, a deter-
mination to gain possession of the best pasturages,
and a strong desire to move eastwards and to move
higher up. In many places the movement merely
results in the colonization of vacant lands, in other

366 UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

places it means competition with the resident popula-
tion, while in others it results in the actual pushing
back of the rightful owners. If it were not for the zeal
shown by the Chinese in protecting the Mongol rights of
ownership, many localities would be rapidly overrun
by the Mohammedan-Turki tribes. All the regions not
exclusively reserved for Mongols are becoming, year by
year, more thickly populated by newcomers of Moslem
faith.

As a rule, this movement appears to be from Russian
into Chinese territory, the Chinese being quite unable
to check the immigration. The Chinese do not want
these immigrants flooding their country, because they
get nothing out of them, for the newcomers still
remain Russian subjects, and are a constant source
of trouble to the authorities on this account. It is
equally certain that the movement into Chinese terri-
tory is caused by no love of Chinese rule. Whatever
M. Vambery says about " an approach between Moslems
and Buddhists," and a growing tendency for Moham-
medans to side with Celestials against a common foe
in the person of the European, his theories find no proof
in these localities. The Turki Moslems prefer to be
under Russian rather than Chinese rule, and, I believe,
would side with the West against the East, in the same
way as the Buddhist Mongols have recently thrown in
their lot with Russia against China.

Whether, or not, the immigration is being directly
caused by the continual influx of Russian colonists into
Russian Central Asia, it is hard to say ; so far as one
can judge, this element probably plays a definite part
in producing a movement of the nomadic tribes from
the plains into the mountains, — which latter happen

KIREI WOMEN GOING TO A WEDDING.

366J

MISTRESSES OF THE YURTS.

THE KIREI OF THE ALTAI 367

to lie along the Russo-Chinese frontier, and chiefly on
the Chinese side of it. In such localities as the Tian
Shan this is undoubtedly the case, for the Kasaks of
the Russian territory, — finding their lands too cramped
and too crowded, through rapid increase in their popu-
lation and by reason of the influx of Russian colonists,
— are now moving into Chinese territory, where there
is more space in which to settle.

There are other localities where this Russian influence
is entirely absent, and yet we find the same movement
of the Mohammedan nomad tribes ; this fact is there-
fore undoubtedly due to an increase in the population,
or to a demand for better pastures, owing to desiccation.
This latter reason would account for the universal desire
to move into higher country.

With the Kirei, for instance, in spite of the ample
lands and the best pasture in the Altai ranges, an attempt
is being made by those members of the tribe who inhabit
the most southern portion of their territory — namely,
the Baitik Mountains and the Dzungarian plains — to
acquire the rights to pasture their flocks still farther
south, in the Bogdo-ola ranges. As a fact, the Kirei
are endeavouring to extend their borders towards the
well-pastured and unoccupied ranges of the Eastern
Tian Shan, but are hindered in their project by the
determination of the Chinese authorities to keep those
regions for themselves.

Thus we see that the nomadic Moslem tribes of this
part of Inner Asia exhibit signs of progress and increase
which the Buddhist tribes do not show.

At this season — mid-September — the Kirei were on
their autumn migrations, and as we rode along the banks
of the Upper Kobdo River we accosted small bands of
II— 4

368 UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

nomads moving down to their winter quarters. They
had come from the high pastures on the flanks of the
Great Altai, and from the lands surrounding the lakes,
which lie embosomed in the grassy uplands at an alti-
tude of about 7,000 ft. At this season they sought the
sheltered valleys of a lower altitude, where protection
from cold and a lesser snowfall made the severity of
winter more endurable. The valley presented a lively
scene, with the continual movement of family parties
with their household belongings, flocks and herds ; as
well as small caravans of camels carrying wool, hides,
and felt — the products of the by-gone season — slouching
past on their way to Kobdo, the trade centre of the
Mongolian Altai.

The Kobdo River was here a fast-flowing stream,
fifty yards in breadth, with banks pleasantly dotted
with groups of giant larch-trees and willow- scrub. We
discovered here the temporary camp of the chief of the
tribe, with a considerable following of retainers ; so we
pitched our tents near by in order to interview him, and
to ask for means of transport through his country. The
chief, we discovered, was on a visit to Chuguchak, a
town lying on the Russo-Chinese frontier in the Dzun-
garian plain, at a distance of about 400 miles from his
home. His eldest son, however, did the honours in his
stead, and the factotum of the princely family looked
after our needs.

Jenghis Khan-Kam, paramount chief of the Kirei,
claims descent from the great Mongol emperor of that
name. This claim is curious, for, although Jenghis
overthrew the Kirei confederacy, it is extremely doubt-
ful that he set up a Mongol ruler over a Turki tribe.
The present chief is certainly of pure Turkish descent.

THE KIREI OF THE ALTAI 369

To claim Jenghis Khan as his ancestor suits his
vanity, as in a similar way many Bokharan nobles claim
descent from Alexander the Great ; the truth being
that they probably gave their women-folk in marriage
to the great Emperor or to his generals. The suffix
'* Kam," the title given to us by his own people, is of
immense interest. The earliest mention of the King of
the Kirei, by Rubruck, describes him as Coir-Cham :
" Cham being his title, the word having the meaning of
Soothsayer, which is applied to their princes because
they govern the people by means of divination." ^ The
same term is employed at the present day to denote
the Shamman priests.

The personal get-up of these nomads was extravagant
and showy. The men were generally dressed in gay
colours, not in the dingy black of the Kara-Kirghiz
of the Pamirs or the Western Tian Shan ; but the women
always "sported," — if they could afford it, — ^the " Kara-
chapan," or black quilted-coat, as well as the high-piled
head-gear of white material. In some details their
dress differed from that of all other Kirghiz tribes, the
chief difference being the boots of tanned leather, with
high heels of a rich dark green colour ; it was the fashion
also for all Kirei of rank to wear the soft plumes of the
Eagle Owl as a crest to their fur-lined caps.

The yurts of the chief were exceptionally large, and
the white felt covering was gaily embroidered with red
and blue designs. Hospitality was shown us by means
of a liberal supply of kummis and sheep, and promises of
everything we wanted ; but, when it came to the actual
supply of transport, we were faced by very different
methods to those to which we had been accustomed.

^ The Journey of Friar Rubruck, p. 100 (Hakluyt Society edition).

370 UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

With this difficulty of procuring transport we gained
our first experience of the independence of the Kirghiz.
We were bluffed at each renewed demand for transport,
by such absurd statements as, "the passes are closed,"
"we have no horses," "the Mongols had better take
you on farther." Two whole days were thus spent in
haggling with the wealthy owners of innumerable herds
of horses, all of whom did their best to evade their
duty to us as strangers travelling through their country,
before we enforced our demands. I allude to this in
order to draw attention to the different points of view
that existed between the Mongol and the Kirghiz : the
former considered himself our vassal, the latter con-
sidered himself our equal.

We were now forced to provision both ourselves and
our caravan for the crossing of an uninhabited area,
which included also the passage of the Great Altai.
Since the Kirei had now deserted the highlands, this
meant a journey of five days' duration before reaching
the settlements on the lower foot-hills of the Dzungarian
side of the range. We therefore purchased sheep, for
food, and, with the Kirei men and horses in place of the
Mongols, we recommenced our travels.

On September 17th we visited Dolto Nor, the lowest
of the group of lakes which form the sources of the
Kobdo River, the main caravan being led up to Dain
Kul, by the direct route to the Urkhogaitu Pass over the
Altai Range. The country surrounding these lakes
forms the main summer resort of the Khan of the Kirei
and his section of the tribe. Situated at an altitude of
7,000 ft. immediately below the forest-belt on the moun-
tains which rise directly to the south-west, this plateau
supplies excellent summer pastures for innumerable

THE KIREI OF THE ALTAI 371

flocks and herds. The country is pecuUar, for it is
formed entirely of miniature hills and dales — remnants of
old moraines. At this season it presented a somewhat
melancholy appearance; there was no pasture, and the
lakes were lifeless, showing barren shores of black stones
with neither reeds nor rushes to enliven the dead brown
of the landscape. But the islands dotting the lakes
were partially covered with forest, and in spring or
early summer the view would be entrancing.

Beyond the lakes, rose suddenly in a long even ridge,
the walls of the main chain of the Altai. We noticed a
considerable belt of larch forest, with the snow extending
as far down as the top of the tree-limit, which must here
have been about 8,000 ft. No peaks of any special
beauty or height rose above the even and slightly indented
ridge; on the whole, this panorama of the Altai was
disappointing, and we considered the range misnamed
" Great." The actual height of this range, — which
we will rename the " Mongolian Altai," in distinction
from the Russian Altai, — seems to average, according
to Prof. Sapoznikoff, about 10,000 ft. There is only
one summit which reaches an altitude of 13,120 ft.
in the entire length of 700 miles, — between the Russian
frontier and where the ranges sink away into desert.
At the point, however, where the Mongolian Altai breaks
away from the Russian Altai there is a group of live high
peaks, one of which reaches an altitude of 14,760 ft.
With the exception of these summits the "Great" Altai
is in reality a rather inconspicuous and narrow range.

Altitude, however, is not everything ; the Altai
in September under fresh snow presented a feature of
remarkable beauty, its unbroken wall — for there is
only one feasible pass over many hundreds of miles —

372 UNKNOWN MONGOLIA

giving us a deep impression of its importance as a
boundary between Mongolia and the region lying
beyond ; between the cold, bleak plateaux and the hot
lowlands ; between a land which is exclusively Mongol
and a land where many races strive together for mastery,
and, most significant of all, between the spheres of the
great faiths — Buddhism and Islam.

On leaving the Dolto Nor we rode over undulating
moraines, and finally across a small plain, as hard and as
smooth as a billiard-table, which had been utilized by
our sporting friends, the Kirei, as a race-course. The
annual race-meeting is held in July, when severe tests
of the capacity and staying powers of horses and riders
take place, as instanced by races run over a course of
20 miles ! A line of posts and rails to which the nomads
tied their horses was the only sign of it being used as a race-
course. Towards the edge of the plain the lake of Dain
Kul was to be seen, tucked away under hills covered
with golden-tinted larch forest ; and here it was that
we made our last camp in Mongolia. On the morrow
a long day's journey took us over the watershed of the
Altai. The route was in every way an easy one ; in fact,
the crossing of the range can be accomplished without
much difficulty by laden camels, and we ourselves rode
on horseback over the pass, without even dismounting.
There was not much snow, and what little there was lay
both on the south side and on the north, shale and
rock being the feature of the pass. Later we realized
that the southern flanks of the Altai receive the greater
precipitation, the forest and pasture being larger and
finer on the south, and the outlying spurs being more
covered with snow than the northern side of the ridge.
It was at an altitude of 9,711 ft. that we crossed the

THE KIREI OF THE ALTAI 373

watershed and camped on a snow-patch below, near
which juniper and birch-scrub gave us fuel/

The crossing of the Urkhogaitu Pass led us down to
the head-waters of the Kran River, which finds its way
eventually into the Irtish, and so on to the Ob River
and the Arctic Ocean. In the course of two days' j ourney
our caravan descended from the cold, rocky crest of the
Altai, over grassy hills and through pleasantly forested
valleys, to the lowest altitude we had experienced for
many months. From the nomads'-land of breezy pla-
teaux and wind-swept pastures we descended to forests,
steep-sided valleys, and rushing rivers, and, still lower
down, to irrigated lands, fields of ripe corn — already
half harvested — and to settled conditions of life.

The scenery in the Kran Valley was gorgeous during
the pageant of autumn : the larch trees were golden, and
the birches and poplars had turned cinnamon-yellow and
wine-red. We now had before us a new phase in
our journey, namely, across a country apart from, and
possessing little in common with, the rest of Central
Asia. On reaching the mouth of the mountain-locked,
portion of the Kran Valley, our eyes suddenly gained a
view of endless plains which lay spread out before us.
Dropping, by an easy descent, to the foot of the range,
we passed on towards this new land which stretched in
featureless expanse to a far horizon, and, arriving at
Sharasume, halted there in order to arrange our future
movements.

1 The Urkhogaitu, or Urmogaitu, is the only pass used as a trade-
route between Northern Mongoha and Dzungaria. It is only open, how-
ever, for a short season. At the beginning of June, Major George Pereira
had considerable difficulty in crossing it, but reported several caravans
as having accomphshed the passage at the end of that month. By the
middle of October the pass is again closed.

CHAPTER XIII

DZUNGARIA — THE LAND OF UNREST

Before embarking upon our voyage over the ocean-like
steppes of Dzungaria, it may be well to give a brief
survey of the country ahead of us, to record its history
and to describe its physical features. An apology ought
to be made for using the name Dzungaria/ as it sug-
gests that the local inhabitants are Dzungars, whereas
Dzungars no longer exist ; the name remains, for no
other title can be found for this odd corner of Inner Asia.
Dzungaria does not belong to Chinese Turkestan — from
which it is separated by a giant wall of mountains ; it is
not Mongolian — for the Altai Mountains form a boundary
between the two countries ; and, although it merges into
the Gobi Desert on the east and into Southern Siberia
on the west, it has nothing in common with either of
those regions.

"Dzungaria" originated from the name of a small
branch of a Mongol tribe, and when that branch be-
came powerful and built up an empire, the name was
extended to the whole confederation of tribes which
that empire embraced. The original territory of the
Dzungars was of much greater dimensions than the
area to which their name is now applied ; but the site

* The situation of Dzungaria in respect to China Proper justifies its
meaning, namely, " on the left hand."

THE LAND OF UNREST 375

of the present-day Dzungaria always formed the centre
of the Dzungar dominions.

Racially and historically the name is now a thing of
the past ; but, although the race has died out, to this
day " Dzungaria " remains as a definite expression
for an important geographical division of Asia.

I have called her the Land of Unrest, for Dzungaria
has been for all time a debatable land, the common
battle-ground of rival races and conflicting creeds, — a
veritable cock-pit of Inner Asia. This strange land is
situated midway between China and Siberia, on the
boundaries of two great Empires, yet sufficiently far
away from the centre of each to have avoided — until
quite recently — being caught up in the net of empire.
She is not rich enough to tempt a permanent coloniza-
tion by either people, she is too far away for either to
hold securely. Yet, lying on the high road to every-
where in Asia, every one passes this way ; but only passes,
for nothing seems to remain permanently in Dzungaria.
The geographical features of the region have been fatal
to permanence. She has been a thoroughfare for migrating
peoples, the abiding-place of none ; her conquerors have
been destroyers — not constructors.

Situated, moreover, on the threshold of the Moslem
and Buddhist worlds, in a region which has been the
camping-ground of all the wild tribes which have, at
different periods, overrun Asia, Dzungaria has inevitably
been the prey of each recurring wave of migration which
has broken across its boundless steppes. She has been
the scene of wars and massacres, — the victim of the
wildest vicissitudes, on a scale such as only Asia can
produce. She was invaded by the Huns and overrun
by the Mongols long before the Dzungars, suddenly

376 DZUNGARIA

rising to eminence, first set up a kingdom. While
they, too, after overrunning wide areas of Asia, sud-
denly collapsed and left nothing but a name. When
the Chinese invaded Dzungaria they killed off her popu-
lation to a man — of six hundred thousand inhabitants
not one remained. In order to repopulate this newly
acquired territory, the Dungans (Chinese Mohamme-
dans) were transported from Western China ; but the
colonists became more powerful than their masters,
and Dzungaria was once again the scene of massacres,
for Islam rose against Cathay, and the Dungans killed
the Celestials by hundreds of thousands. Small wonder,
then, that Dzungaria has remained unsettled and un-
civilized, that she has produced neither cities nor large
cultivated areas, and that, although for the moment
her throbbing deserts are at rest, her atmosphere is
still one of uncertainty and alarm.

Although the name Dzungaria originally denoted a
tribal area, it happened also to include a region remark-
ably well defined by^^atural boundaries; thus "Dzun-
garia " now represents a purely topographical division,
standing apart and distinct from the surrounding
regions. The Dzungaria of to-day embraces the whole
of the inter- Altai-Tian Shan region, and is bordered by
Mongolia on the east and Southern Siberia on the west.
The land, as a whole, is lowland as compared with the
rest of Mongolia, and forms part of the Siberian plains
rather than of the Central Asian tableland. Yet, on
the other hand, Dzungaria has the character of an
inclined plain with a long and gentle ascent from the
plains of Siberia to the plateau of Mongolia. The
average altitude of the floor of this plain is about 1,500
ft, above sea-level ; in the west the level drops to 700 ft.,

THE LAND OF UNREST 377

and in the east, where it merges into the Gobi Desert,
rises to 2,500 ft. Of a total area of 147,000 square
miles, about two-thirds consists of plain, the remaining
portion being composed of mountain-ranges, situated
like a wall around the central basin, and forming in
themselves a natural frontier against Mongolia, Siberia,
Chinese and Russian Turkestan.

The plains of Dzungaria are of a complex character.
For the most part they are composed of hard, dry steppe
covered with a scanty growth of saxaul and tamarisk ;
but this is varied by large areas of saline desert and sand-
dunes. The rivers descending into the plain from the
border-ranges, — with the exception of the Manas River,
— do not run far before sinking below the surface, thereby
forbidding the employment of irrigation methods and
causing the interior to remain arid and unproductive. In
consequence, a certain portion of this region can never
be of economic value, while the remainder, which is
either reached by water or can be brought within its
reach, presents itself as a suitable country for future
expansion, although it is not yet utilized to any great
extent. Nomad life, however, is not entirely absent from
these regions, for even the sand-dunes supply a little
pasture, and this is used by the shepherds in winter.
In summer the inner deserts are destitute of human
life, and even the explorer will find them most tedious
to traverse, owing to their soft, salt-encrusted surface,
the lack of water, and the great heat. No one but a
"Mongol, a misanthrope, or a madman" would venture
into Central Dzungaria in midsummer.

The border-ranges are the Hfe of Dzungaria ; they
supply the pasture for the nomads, and the water for
the agriculturists ; they, — together with the warm zone

378 DZUNGARIA

of country lying at the foot of the mountains, between
them and the deserts, — compose the whole of inhabited
Dzungaria. In comparison with the deserts, the sur-
rounding highlands are paradises of wealth and beauty.
Well-named, indeed, is the southern border-range — the
Tian Shan — or Heavenly Mountains. This giant range,
together with its continuation — the Bogdo-ola and the
Karlik Tagh — runs the whole length of Southern Dzun-
garia. A continuous line of ice-peaks and untrodden
snow- fields lift themselves in exultation above the dusty
plain, and send down their melting waters to supply the
colonists with all they need to turn their lands to good
account. The southern wall of Dzungaria is almost
unbroken. In a length of eight hundred miles there
are only two passes suitable for wheeled traffic ; one,
leading over into Chinese Turkestan, — the Dabachin,
situated to the south of Urumchi at the junction of the
Tian Shan and Bogdo-ola, and the other, a nameless pass
between Tou-shui and Ta-shih-tu which leads over the
plateau between the Bogdo-ola and Barkul ranges. One
other pass alone — the Talki — permits free intercourse
between Dzungaria and the Hi Valley.

The second range of importance, which affects the
welfare of Dzungaria, is the Altai. For a distance of four
hundred miles these mountains form a frontier between
Dzungaria and Mongolia, and supply not only immense
pastures for nomads, but facilities for agriculture, and
rivers which form a water-way to Siberia. The Mongo-
lian Altai is the north-eastern border-range ; it abuts on
the Russian frontier on the one hand, and stretches out
into the Gobi Desert on the other.

On the north and west a string of ranges, orographi-
cally disconnected, but geologically the same, form a

THE LAND OF UNREST 379

barrier between Dzungaria and Siberia; the barrier is,
however, sufficiently broken to permit of easy communica-
tion between the two countries. The Tarbagatai, the
Sair, the Urkashar, and BarUk groups, together with
the Ala-tau, form this northern frontier. They are
further described in another chapter.

" Mountains," says Rickmers, in his description of the
physical features of the " Duab of Turkestan," " have
been called the skeleton of the land, being guiding-Hnes
to the eye; but we can extend the analogy to the backbone,
which is also the nerve-centre, and as such the ruling
influence in the development and vitality of a continent.
The solution of Asiatic problems lies in the mountains."

The chief peculiarity of Dzungaria is its character as
a mountain-locked basin, the position of its encircling
ranges, in respect to the Siberian plains and the prevailing
moisture-laden winds, making Dzungaria subject to
phenomenal climatic conditions. The ranges surrounding
Dzungaria are peculiarly situated in comparison with other
mountainous regions of Inner Asia, for all these ranges,
whether in the north, south, or west, appear to exercise
a positive, and not a negative, influence (as is the case
with so many of the ranges in Central Asia) on the
country lying between them.

The Tian Shan, for instance, receives a heavy rainfall
on its northern flank, which produces pine-forests and
pastures, while the southern side of the watershed is
a veritable abomination of desolation. This chain of
mountains supplies Southern Dzungaria with refreshing
summer rains, but at the same time minimizes the precipi-
tation on its southern flank in Chinese Turkestan. We
ourselves, whilst wandering in the desert zone at a distance
of fifty miles from the foot of the mountains, experi-

38o DZUNGARIA

enced, at the end of May, heavy rain-storms. It rained
continuously for twenty hours on one occasion, making
the country almost impossible for travelling, the rain-
storms creeping up from the west, and breaking across
the plains to the north, as frequently as they did on the
ranges to the south.

Curiously enough, the north-western border-range —
the Altai — has reversed climatic conditions, the slopes
facing south-west, and not those facing north-east,
having the greater precipitation. Prof. Sapoznikoff, —
the most recent as well as the most trustworthy writer on
the Mongolian Altai, — says that, if the volumes of water
flowing off the two sides of the range be compared, it is
found that the flow of water from the south-west is by far
the greater, this proving to be an exception to the rule
generally accepted in regard to mountain-ranges in Inner
Asia, where the north side has usually the greater precipi-
tation. This contradiction is explained by the fact that
the spurs on the south-western slopes are longer and
higher than those on the north-east, and on this account
become the better condensers of the moisture. The cur-
rents of air from the west and north-west encounter these
outlying spurs and are relieved of their moisture ; thus
the precipitation on the farther side of the range is
greatly minimized. The result is that the forests and
pastures of the Dzungarian slopes of the Altai make
very favourable conditions for a nomadic life, while
the river-valleys grant facilities for future colonization.
The northern border-ranges of Dzungaria are, in
like manner, clothed with forests and grass, the lower
portions of the southern flanks alone being covered with
desert flora.

It is this special factor in the climatic conditions of

THE LAND OF UNREST 381

Dzungaria that causes the locality to be such a well-
favoured one, for of its total area only one-tenth is un-
productive. The course of desiccation, now in progress
in Chinese Turkestan, does not extend to Dzungaria ; no
sand-buried cities or dying forests are to be found ; and,
as far as we could judge, the rivers extend as far out into
the plain as they have done during a very long period.

The hydrography of Dzungaria is also peculiar. The
entire drainage from the encircling mountain-ranges is
caught by self-contained lake-basins, with the exception
of a portion of the Altai which drains, by way of the
Irtish River, into the Arctic Ocean. Much water drains
from the surrounding ranges into the plain, but, on
reaching it, the majority disappears below the surface, to
reappear again at the level of the lakes. The main rivers
of Dzungaria, namely, the Borotala, the Emil, the Manas,
and the Urungu, succeed in passing the belt of gravel and
reach their destinations above ground, carving out for
themselves deep ravines in the soft clay of the plains.

Between the highlands and the plain lies a zone of
country neither mountain nor desert, free from extremes
of climate, and rendered suitable for man's use by its
admirable position. This zone is to be found in charac-
teristic form along the northern foot-hills of the Tian
Shan, where rivers from the snow-clad ranges to the
south pour down their waters through innumerable
valleys on to the plain, thus supplying material for the
carrying out of irrigation schemes. The area of land
rendered productive by these means is very consider-
able, and by systematic irrigation a still greater area
could be brought into use. The Manas River, for instance,
wastes itself by evaporation in the Telli Nor, while
pregnant lands on either bank lie dry and unutilized.

382 DZUNGARIA

Much water disappears also in the zone of piedmont-
gravel, but reapproaches the surface at about twenty
miles from the foot of the mountains (at an altitude of
from 1,500 to 2,000 ft.) in sufficient quantity to enable
the land to support forests of stunted poplars and jungles
of reeds and scrub. The productive belt is very narrow,
but here and there tongues of vegetation stretch out across
the plain, and denote the courses of the various rivers,
which supply the necessary underground moisture.

This zone has been occupied, from time immemorial,
by one of the earliest races of Central Asian agricul-
turists— the Uigurs — and at the present day it forms
a colony for Chinese, Dungan, and Turki cultivators.
Here have been built the large towns, including the
government capital, and the centres of internal trade
between Siberia, Mongolia, Turkestan, and China Proper.
A boom in land speculation is taking place, which may
greatly increase now that the former dumping-ground
for colonists — Mongolia — ^has become a forbidden land
to the Chinese ; Dzungaria alone, of lands within the
Empire, remains untenanted.

From these physical features and climatic conditions
results the history of Dzungaria.

Dzungaria, before taking its name as the land of the
Dzungars, was a no-man's-land, claimed at different
periods by such ephemeral empire-builders as the Kara-
Kitai, the Uigurs, the Naimans, and the Mongols ; yet,
it was never entirely under the sway of any of these
peoples. The earliest traditions about this region centre
around either the southern portion, — the site of the
present capital, Urumchi, — which has always been a
favoured locality, or the Emil Valley on the northern
border, which, on account of its situation on the high-

THE LAND OF UNREST 383

road between Eastern and Western Asia, has for ages
formed the camping-ground of " princely-shepherds "
and nomad-kings. These two locahties contain all the
principal historical associations of Dzungaria.

Landmarks in the history of Dzungaria are difficult
to discern at so great a distance ; in fact, they are entirely
lost to view if we look back beyond the ninth century a.d.
Before that date all Inner Asia was the play-ground
or battle-field of numerous unsettled, roaming bands of
nomads, about whom we know very little. During the
first three dynasties of China (until 249 B.C.) her western
borders were not in relation with the Empire. At the
commencement of the Hun Dynasty the spirit of con-
quest resulted in the incorporation of Kansu as a pro-
vince, but no notice appears to have been taken of the
far western regions, such as Turkestan and Dzungaria, nor
is there any mention of them in the Imperial Annals,
before the reign of Chien-lung in the eighteenth century.

Between the second century B.C. and the fifth century
A.D. one particular tribe — the Huns — caused great changes
and upheavals in Inner Asia. Emerging from the depths
of Manchuria, they harried the marches of China and
wandered across into Dzungaria on their way to Europe.
This great human flood, however, left no trace behind
it, and we have to wait until the ninth century a.d.
before we find any part of Dzungaria actually occupying
a position of importance. At that period the Uigurs,
being driven out by pestilence, famine, and Kirghiz
invaders from their home in MongoHa, migrated to
Southern Dzungaria, and set up their second kingdom
on the slopes of the Tian Shan mountains, with their
capital at Bishbalik — the site of the present Urumchi.

The Uigur Kingdom embraced but a small portion
n— 5

384 DZUNGARIA

of Dzungaria — namely, the southern borders, at the
foot of the Tian Shan — a district which corresponds
precisely to the present-day colonies of Chinese and
Dungans. This district was, in fact, the only portion
offering facilities to an agricultural people, Dzungaria
being divided into two zones, the northern portion for
nomads and the southern for agriculturists. The
remainder of the Uigur Kingdom was composed of the
rich oases of Chinese Turkestan, on the southern side of
the Tian Shan.

At this particular period Turki nomadic tribes, such
as the Naimans, held the northern portion of Dzungaria,
and the Kirei were resident in the Altai.

This state of affairs continued until the early part
of the twelfth century, when another immigration of
strangers occurred. In 1123 (according to Sir Henry
Howorth) a prince of the Kitan, or Liao Dynasty,
emigrated from China with a small band of followers.
Gathering, on his way through Shensi, a considerable
number of Turki adventurers, he travelled across the
confines of China to the " land of Kirghises," and settled
in Northern Dzungaria, where he built a town on the
banks of the " I mil " (Emil). The result was the origin
of the kingdom of the Kara-Kitai, who extended their
power until they embraced not only all Dzungaria,
but also Chinese and Russian Turkestan. The Kara-
Kitai became the suzerains of the Uigurs and all the
smaller nomadic peoples, until the Mongol avalanche
was set in motion and eventually destroyed them.

Early in the thirteenth century the Mongols arose,
and, sweeping all Inner Asia, entirely altered the map of
racial-distribution. The Mongols were destroyers, not
organizers, in consequence of which all permanent con-

384]

MONGOL COIFFURE.
A woman of the Khalka tribe.

THE LAND OF UNREST 385

ditions in Dzungaria disappeared ; but, since Northern
Dzungaria formed the high-road between the extremities
of the Mongol Empire, it played an important part, and
the encampment of some great chieftain was always to
be found in the Emil Valley. After the death of Jenghis
Khan, Dzungaria fell to the lot of his third son, Oktai,
or Ogodai, who also held Mongolia Propei ; it seems,
however, to have been a bone of contention between
Oktai and his brother Chagatai, who ruled over the
Middle Kingdom of Turkestan and Afghanistan, and
was generally in a state of unrest. Later, in 1254, the
Emil district of Northern Dzungaria formed the head-
quarters of Kuyuk Khan, grandson of Jenghis.

As the power of the Mongols decreased, China
regained her influence, and constant fighting took
place along the Chinese-Mongol borders, until, in the
middle of the fifteenth century, she finally threw off
the Mongol yoke. Then Mongolia and Dzungaria lapsed
into intrigues and quarrels between themselves, and
nothing of note is recorded until the end of the seven-
teenth century, when movements of great importance
again took place in Dzungaria.

A section of the Western Mongols, named after their
leader, Eliutei, or Eleuth,* had been slowly gaining power
in these regions, until in 1690, under their Khan Galdan,
they conquered Samarkand, Bokhara, and Yarkand—

^ The Eleuths are generally styled Kalmuks, a name which has stood
for all branches of Western Mongol tribes, but has in itself no specific
meaning. " Kalmuk " is not a Mongol word, but it seems to have been
in use amongst the Turks for a very long period. Some writers claim
that the word means " remnant," i.e. the broken branches of the great
Mongol people who were left, as it were, as the Mongol flood receded
from the west ; while others suggest that " Kalmuk " is only a corruption
of " Kalpak," i.e. " fur cap," a name in use among Mohammedan Turks
for all Mongol tribes.

386 DZUNGARIA

the great cities of Turkestan. On the death of Galdan,
his nephew Rabdan, who was chief of a small branch of
the Eleuths named Songares or Dzungars, succeeded to
the possessions of his uncle. He established a firm
hold over all his subjects, and gave the name of his own
tribe to his entire kingdom ; hence the origin of the
name Dzungaria. Here arose, for the first time, a
power whose headquarters were in this hitherto name-
less portion of Inner Asia.

Rabdan must have been a man of remarkable ability.
He is said to have hindered the Russian advance into
Turkestan, and to have reduced the kingdom of Hami.
He warred with China and invaded Tibet, where he
contented himself with looting the monasteries. Eventu-
ally the Chinese drove the Dzungars out of Tibet, and
retook Hami on behalf of its Khan, — who remained
vassal to them, — while the Dzungars were pushed back
into their own Dzungaria.

Then followed a short period when the Chinese stood
aside and allowed anarchy to prevail amongst the tribes
on the far w^estern confines of her dominion. Rabdan,
Khan of the Dzungar Empire, died, and his son con-
tinued a similar course of war and quarrel. All authority
was lost on account of continual intrigue and assassina-
tion, many of the inhabitants fled from the country,
including the Torguts, who migrated en masse into
Russian territory, and the Empire gradually fell to
pieces. Finally the leadership passed to an adventurer,
Amursana, who played his cards first for the Dzungars,
and then for the Chinese, and created such disturbance
that, at last, when the Chinese appeared again on the
scene, they annihilated the Dzungars and annexed
their country. Of a population of 600,000 souls not a

THE LAND OF UNREST 387

Dzungar was left alive, and this country became once
more an unhappy and depopulated land.

This date, 1750, marks the beginning of the period
of Chinese ascendancy in the far western portion of her
Empire, under the great , Emperor Chien-lung, whose
great ambition was to restore Chinese prestige in Central
Asia. Dzungaria being depopulated, Chien-lung im-
ported, as colonists into the country, Solons and Sibos,
loyal fighting races on whom the Chinese could depend ;
these people were given land in the Hi Valley ; while
Dungans (Chinese Mohammedans) settled in consider-
able numbers along the northern foot-hills of the Tian
Shan. Chinese colonists began to recognize in Southern
Dzungaria and the Hi Valley a new colony where life
was easier than in the crowded home provinces ; while
criminals and outlaws found that in this direction they
could best escape the long arm of the law. Gradually
Dzungaria began to assume a respectable and almost
settled appearance. Towns of importance grew up,
and even the Torguts, after their none too pleasant
experiences in Russian territory, were invited to return
and were offered lands in which to dwell.

All went well until disturbances and unrest amongst
the Chinese Mohammedans, in the provinces of Kansu
and Shensi, sent a wave of dissatisfied insurgents across
to Dzungaria. In 1864 the Mohammedans rose against
their rulers, the Dungan colonists captured the capital —
Urumchi, and killed 130,000 Chinese ; the Hi Valley
was also devastated, five out of its six towns were de-
stroyed, and Dzungaria became once more the scene of
bloodshed and war. For seventeen years disorder con-
tinued, and it was not until 1878 that the Chinese suc-
ceeded in crushing the revolt. In 188 1 these outlying

388 DZUNGARIA

regions — Turkestan and Dzungaria — which had for ever
been " a thorn in the flesh " of the Chinese, and had been
lost and won several times, were incorporated into a
province and named Sin-Kiang — the New Dominion.
With characteristic persistency the tenacious Chinese
have once again built up their fabric of government,
greater towns supersede the former ones, colonists
continue to pour into the country, trade grows,
and, although ruined towns and villages still dis-
figure the landscape, there is not only every likeli-
hood of progress in the future, but less chance of
retrogression.

Such is the kaleidoscopic story of Dzungaria. Small
wonder is it that ethnological confusion reigns at present
in the ancient land of the Dzungars. The migratory
hordes and conquering armies passing backwards and
forwards, have left a flotsam and jetsam which now
forms its population ; within this area reside remnants
of every race which has used it as a camping-ground
or attempted to make it a home. There are Mongols,
Kalmuks, Kirghiz, Turki descendants of the ancient
Uigurs, Chinese, Dungans, and Russians.

The tribal distribution is to-day much the same as it
was formerly, in that Northern Dzungaria is still the
nomads' land, while its southern borders are the home
of the agricultural and settled section of the population.
In enumerating the various races inhabiting Dzungaria
at the present day, I shall deal with them under the
separate headings of Nomadic Residents and Sedentary
Residents, i.e. agriculturists, merchants, and officials, —
including in this category occasional visitors. Roughly
speaking, the Chinese form the merchant and official
class, besides being the market gardeners ; the Moham-

r' c
■■^ %

XT: •=

O
'4.

THE LAND OF UNREST 389

Pxiedan Dungans and Chantos are the grain-growers ;
while the Mongols and Kirghiz are the ranchers.

All Dzungaria outside the cultivated zone lying
under the northern spurs of the Tian Shan is, practically
speaking, a land in which the tribes live under nomadic
conditions. Its physical features have been dealt with
in another part of this chapter, and we can now
supplement this by a description of the various peoples
who wander over it. Mingled with the nomadic popu-
lation is a small population of cultivators ; the lower
Borotala in the west, for instance, holds out possibilities
for agriculture, as also do the Emil Valley in the north, the
Irtish in the east, and the lower Manas River, — flowing
through the very heart of the central steppes, — all these
may some day become centres of large sedentary com-
munities. The nomadic tribes consist of the Turkish
Kirei and Kasaks, as well as the Torguts and Charkhars
of Mongol origin.

The distribution of the main section of the Kirei
has been given in Chapter XII ; the very important
mountain district surrounding the Emil Valley, on
the northern frontier of Dzungaria, is inhabited by
a western branch of these people. The Tarbagatai,
Urkashar, Barlik, and Maili mountain-ranges are all
used by them, the Kosho, or Kun Valley, between the
Chagan-oba and Maili Mountains forming the centre
of their range.

Kirghiz tribes, not belonging to the Kirei family, are to
be found in certain localities in Tian Shan, — the southern
border-range of Dzungaria, — as far east as Urumchi ; but,
for the most part, Mongol — or, more truly, Kalmuk —
tribes of Torguts hold the eastern portion of this range.

The Torguts of Dzungaria are divided into two

390 DZUNGARIA

sections : those of the Kobuk Valley in the north, where
they live, in small reservations, under their hereditary
Khan ; and those of the Tian Shan, who have their
headquarters on the Yulduz plateau, but extend in small
communities along the whole Dzungarian side of the
range. The story of the Torguts is typical of the history
of Inner Asia, being that of a people buffeted about
by changing circumstances and generally " on the
move." All that now remains of the Torgut tribe in
Dzungaria, is merely the remnant of the once numerous
and important section of the Mongol people, who were
driven out during the storm}^ period of Dzungarian
ascendancy towards the end of the seventeenth cen-
tury. The whole tribe then wandered westwards
across Southern Siberia, attempted to fight the Russians,
and finally promised them allegiance in return for
territory allotted to them on the banks of the Volga.
The exiles, however, did not rest securely in their new
home ; the}- were harassed by the other nomad tribes
of the region, who were jealous of their possessions,
and they eventually fell out with their Russian masters.
In 1770, within eighty years of their migration from
the east, they started off once more on a movement
which has been compared to the Exodus of the Israel-
ites from Egypt, and described as " the most extra-
ordinar}^ emigration of modern times." The entire
tribe, with the exception of a few thousand families,^

^ Accounts vary as to the number of Torguts resident on the Volga
and of those who attempted the journey back to Dzungaria. The Torguts
estimated themselves at 50,000 tents; but, as this did not include lamas,
and as they naturally minimized their total on account of the levies
demanded of them, the number was probably nearly 65,000 to 70.000
famiUes. It is said that 15,000 famiUes remained on the Volga. Russian
accounts put the number of those who left the Volga at 40,000 famihes,
while the Chinese claim that 50,000 arrived back in Dzungaria.

THE LAND OF UNREST 391

under their leader Ubashi Khan, attempted to escape
from the arms of Russia and to return to their old home,
the desire being increased by an invitation from the
Emperor Chien-lung, who, after depopulating Dzungaria,
wished to find desirable colonists and promised the
Torguts a home in their native land. The migration of
a people, including men, women, children, flocks and
herds ; the transport of all household belongings ; the
actual journey, undertaken— as it was — in mid-winter,
over bleak and barren steppes, for a distance of three
thousand miles from the Volga to Dzungaria, form
adequate material for a romance. Harassed by enemies,
decimated by disease, starving, fighting for their lives and
their belongings, unable to retreat, forced to advance
or to die, the Torguts marched by slow and painful
stages back to their own land. After running the
gauntlet of Russian Cossacks and Kirghiz plunderers
for eight months, the remnant arrived on the confines
of China, and were given lands in the Kobuk district ^
of Northern Dzungaria, the Yulduz plateau, and the
Kunguz and Tekes Valleys in Tian Shan. There exists
also a small section of Torguts resident in the southern
slopes of the Altai at the sources of the Urungu River,
and on the Baitik Mountains, which latter region they
share with the Kirei.

In Western Dzungaria is another reservation for a
Mongol tribe, namely, the Borotala Valley. In this
abundantly watered and well-protected region on the

^ My reasons for considering the Kobuk Torguts a portion of the
tribe who migrated to the Volga and back again, are gathered from the
accounts given by Tsh'ovenn-iven, first Tao-tai of Southern Dzungaria,
who relates that " in the thirty-sixth year of Kien-loung (Chien-lung)
the Torguts, having at their head their chief, Tortsi-bek, settled them-
selves at seven days' march distant from and to the east of the town of
Tarbagatai, in a place called Kiabek saU " (Kobuk saU, or Kobuk Valley).

392 DZUNGARIA

south side of the Ala-tau Range dwell a section of the
Charkhars, the story of whose introduction to this land
compares with the strange wanderings of the Torguts,
in that the migration of Charkhars was compulsory
and not voluntary. We, in these days of sedentary life,
narrow conventionalities, and, in most cases, carefully
delineated frontiers, can scarcely realize the magnitude
of those men-movements which took place in the old
days. In former times a conqueror thought nothing
of shifting a whole nation across a continent, or of colon-
izing the lands he had laid waste by importing bands of
captives. The world is now so cramped and crowded,
that carefully surveyed and jealously guarded frontiers
forbid such excursions as those made by the Torguts, the
Eleuths, and the Charkhars. A nation, or even a tribe,
would find considerable obstacles in its way if it started
to overrun Asia.

The Charkhars were once a ruling tribe in Southern
Mongolia, outside the Great Wall. Owing, however,
to their formidable numbers and warlike nature, the
Chinese greatly feared them, and, when opportunity
occurred, they took the chance of breaking their power
and transporting them in bulk to the furthermost corner
of the Empire. The Borotala Valley was given them as
a reservation on which no other tribes might encroach,
and, if I mistake not, they are better off there than if
they had been left in Southern Mongolia, for those
" lands of high grass " have since been overrun by
Chinese colonists, to the detriment of the few nomads
who remained.

The Charkhars abound in large encampments along
the banks of the Borotala, and even a few Chanto and
Chinese farmers have found a footing for themselves

A CHAKKIIAK Ol- KANK.

393]

THE LAND OF UNREST 393

by renting land at an exorbitant price from the chiefs,
who were said to extort from them 50 per cent, of their
produce. The upper portion of the valley belongs to
the " Kho-ching " section of the Charkhars, who were
the original settlers, while the " Chi-ning " occupy the
lower portion and the district of Sairam Nor.

We noted the superior type of the Charkhars, in
comparison with the Torguts. They were almost clean-
looking, possessed some fine yurts, and appeared to be
well-to-do. We were again struck by the paradoxical
condition of a people having the appearance of being
at a standstill in a magnificent and pregnant land. There
is land to waste in the Borotala ; it would hold a far
denser nomadic population, not to mention an agricul-
tural one ; the Chinese protection of the Mongol rights
of ownership alone hinder the Kasaks and the Chantos
from overrunning it. Yet, in spite of every advant-
age, the Charkhars do not appear to increase.

From this it will be seen that the nomadic population
is chiefly concentrated on the border-ranges of Dzungaria.
In the far east — on the slopes of the Altai — are the Tor-
guts, in the north-east — the Kirei, on the northern
border-ranges — the Torguts and Western Kirei, in the
west — the Charkhars, while on the southern side is a
sprinkling of Torguts and Kirghiz. The central plains,
except along the course of the Manas River, are practically
uninhabited.

There now remains to be described the zone of
country between the spurs of the Tian Shan and the
deserts ; the area where much water from the snow-clad
mountains makes irrigation-methods practicable, seden-
tary life an advantage, and, consequently, the build-
ing of towns a necessity. The inhabitants of this

394 DZUNGARIA

district consist of the resident-sedentary class, for the
most part new-comers, and include colonists, merchants,
and the official element. The vast proportion of
the settlers are Dungans and Chinese, who take up
small holdings and lead an easy and profitable existence.
There are also a few Chantos from Chinese Turkestan,
but these latter fare badh' when they come in contact
with the crafty Celestials. The Dungan population is
considerable, especially in the well-favoured Manas
district. They all came originally from the provinces
of Kansu and Shensi, but be^^ond this fact the origin
of the Dungan, or " Turgani," is very vague ; it has,
indeed, been called " the most obscure problem in
Asiatic history." ^ The Dungans are strict Mohammedans,
in that they rigorously observe the two dogmas, of
abstinence from the eating of swine's flesh and from the
use of spirits ; neither do they touch opium. They are,
in consequence, a healthier, hardier, bolder, and braver
race than the Chinese, and of even greater activity
and astuteness.

The Dungan is a wonderful fellow, although rather
insolent and unmanageable. He is even superior to
the wily Chinese when it becomes a question of business
sagacity. The Chinese formula for the comparative
capabilities of the Christian, the Jew, the Dungan, and
the Celestial is as follows : One Jew can cheat ten
Christians ; one Chinaman is the equal of ten Jews ;
but one Dungan can get the better of ten Chinese !

The Chinese Mohammedan has caused trouble in
the past. He has been overcome by superiorit}' of
numbers, but he has forgotten nothing, and only waits
until his chance occurs again. If there were no likeli-

1 See Appendix A.

THE LAND OF UNREST 395

hood of interference on the part of Russia, the Dungans
would revolt again on the least provocation.

The Chinese element is chiefly official and com-
mercial, and, in consequence, makes up the resident
population of the towns. In Dzungaria there are alto-
gether five towns of greater and two of lesser importance.
Of the first mentioned there are : Urumchi, the capital,
where resides a Futai — the governor of Dzungaria and
Chinese Turkestan, a Grand Treasurer, a Tartar General,
and a considerable garrison ; Chuguchak — on the
northern frontier — of economic and strategical im-
portance, but not at present utilized to any great
extent ; Manas, the agricultural centre — ^the granary
of Dzungaria ; Guchen, the terminus of the trans-Gobi
trade-route, and Barkul, of no particular note. Of lesser
size are Shi-kho, at the junction of the Chuguchak and
Hi roadways, and Sharasume, the new military post in
the Altai. These towns form the temporary homes of
the Chinese rulers, the military element, and the
traders.

Here the Celestials live, completely oblivious of the
fact that they are, in reality, exiled, among entirely
foreign surroundings. They show here that extra-
ordinary adaptability to their surroundings which marks
them all the world over, whether in the Port of London,
in San Francisco, Australia, or South Africa.

Besides the Chinese, Chanto merchants do a very
considerable trade in local produce, and are the agents
for Russian goods, which find a ready market. In
Urumchi alone the Turki population numbers a quarter
of the whole.

Over this nondescript population rules — or rather
ruled — the Emperor of China through the agency of the

396 DZUNGARIA

Viceroy of Kansu and Shensi, who deputes a Governor to
look after the affairs of Dzungaria.

Dzungaria gave me the impression of a vast land
awaiting development, but cursed by the blight of
unrest, continual insurrection and rebellion. With-
out a strong government these potentially wealthy
lands must long remain vacant. Dzungaria represents
the neutral zone between vast China and vaster Russia.
Will the Dragon arouse herself, and send her surplus
millions to make this land a garden, or will Dzungaria be
swept up by a greater Russian Empire ?

CHAPTER XIV

FROM THE ALTAI TO THE ILI VALLEY

On September 20th, 1910, we reached Sharasume, a small
military post which the Chinese have built comparatively
recently in the Kran Valley, with the intention of guard-
ing this, the only, route connecting Dzungaria with
Northern Mongolia. We found Sharasume to consist of
several " Yamens " — residences of Chinese officials — a
mud fort for the garrison, and a group of houses and
stores belonging to Chinese, Tartars, and Chantos/
This post represented the headquarters of the Chinese
Amban of the Altai, who was immediately under the
Emperor in Pekin, and reported directly to him. Quite
recently the garrison had been strengthened, and there
had been an increase of military activities, in order to
re-establish the prestige of the Celestial Empire. When
on the spot we were at a loss to discover the exact reason
for this innovation, but recent affairs in Mongolia have
proved to us that it was merely an attempt to bluff the

^ The name of Chanto will constantly recur throughout the following
chapters, and needs some explanation. It is the Chinese generic name
for all Mohammedan-Turki sedentary people, meaning literally "wound
round their heads," or turban- wearers. It corresponds to the Russian
term " Sart," as applied to the sedentary population of Russian Central
Asia. All the inhabitants of Chinese Turkestan are Chantos, but they
have no such broad title for themselves, — as a people they have no name,
— describing themselves only according to the towns to which they belong,
viz. Kashgarlik, Turfanlik, Kumuhk.

397

398 DZUNGARIA

Mongol chieftains. In this out-of-the-way frontier post,
at a distance of 1,500 miles from Pekin, the Chinese kept
up as great state as if they were at home. But the
prestige of the Empire they represented became a
negligible quantity when we reviewed the poorly clad,
slouching band of ruffians who, armed with old German
rifles and pikes, formed the garrison.

Sharasume had, however, the makings of an important
settlement ; it was not only the centre of a large nomadic
population, thus holding out good prospects for trade,
but the Kran Valley — although undeveloped — possessed
all that was necessary for the creation of a large agri-
cultural district. Even now there is a considerable area
under cultivation, though supplying only sufficient for
local consumption. The Chinese and Chantos possessed
promising market-gardens, in which they grew vegetables
and melons ; whilst wheat, millet, and a few oats were
cultivated in irrigated fields by the semi-nomadic Kirei
and Torgut Mongols. This led to the interesting dis-
covery that in the Kran and Upper Irtish Valleys signs
were not lacking of the nomads becoming more or less
sedentary, in that, they were cultivating the land, and
even building occasional isolated farm-houses. The
population of the Kran Valley must be considerable,
but, being a migratory one — the cultivators of the land
near Sharasume moving down to the steppes after the
harvest is over — it is difficult to estimate. The settle-
ment itself had a population of about 2,000.

In the bazaars we found all we needed in the form of
stores, such as rice, flour, eggs, tea, and sugar ; we even
bought apples which had come from Urumchi in Southern
Dzungaria, and dried apricots imported from Turfan
in Chinese Turkestan. The traders were chiefly Chantos

FROM THE ALTAI TO THE ILI 399

from the large oases of Southern Dzungaria, all of whom
had originally come from the towns of the Tarim
basin. Sharasume is an isolated settlement. Its nearest
neighbour is Kobdo, at a distance of a hundred and sixty
miles, but from Kobdo it is separated by the main chain
of the Altai ; Chuguchak in Northern Dzungaria is
about two hundred and forty miles distant, while Urumchi
and other towns of Southern Dzungaria are over two
hundred and sixty miles away. Over these wide stretches
of country there are neither towns nor villages.

We now began to formulate plans for our intended
exploration in Dzungaria. Before us lay the fact that
the fast approaching winter would hinder all scientific
work, the birds were already migrating to warmer regions,
the mammals were hibernating ; and a country under
such conditions of snow and intense cold would render
impossible the carrying on of survey-work.

Travelling, however, was comparatively easy, and
the itinerary drawn up gave us time to traverse Dzun-
garia and to bring us closely in touch with its winter
aspect before the coming spring allowed us once more
to start detailed work.

Leaving Sharasume on September 24th, we were faced
by a forty days' journey along the northern frontiers
of Dzungaria, to Kulja in the Hi Valley, where we had
our winter quarters for a couple of months during the
reconstruction of our caravan and outfit. There, Price
left us for a journey through Russian Turkestan and the
Caucasus on his way to England, while early in January
Miller and I started again, and followed the trade-route
which runs the whole length of Southern Dzungaria.
During March and April we explored and mapped in
detail the extreme eastern portion of the Tian Shan
II — 6

400 DZUNGARIA

mountain-system — the Karlik Tagh. In summer we
again traversed Dzungaria in its central portion, visiting
the Western Kirei in their home on the Barhk and MaiU
ranges and the Charkhar Mongols in the Borotala Valley,
thus completing our investigation of the varied inhabi-
tants of Dzungaria. On July 23rd we returned to Kulja,
having thoroughly carried out our programme.

Our objective on setting out from Sharasume was
the Chinese frontier town of Chuguchak, two hundred and
fifty miles distant, which we hoped to reach in eighteen
days, with the help of twelve Bactrian camels hired
through the medium of the ofhcials at Sharasume. Our
request for transport met with immediate response, but
we were given to understand that there was a fixed
rate of hire for such transport. This little incident
brought home to us that we were now travelling under
new conditions, and that Mongolia, with its tax of " free
transport for travellers " was a thing of the past. Dzun-
garia forms a portion of a vast western appanage of
China, only recently incorporated into a province, and
named Sin-Kiang — a term which means, literally, the
New Dominion ; it includes Chinese Turkestan, the Hi
Valley, and Dzungaria, and exists under the same ad-
ministration as does any province of China Proper.
Thus, Dzungaria is subject to China, and differs from
Mongolia, which is — or rather was — under the protection
of the Manchu rulers.

Our route led us across the valleys of the lower Kran
and of the Black Irtish, a short distance to the east of the
point where the two valleys joined ; we found this region
to be one of vast reed-beds, lagoons, and sand-hills,
with belts of poplar and willow-trees bordering the
river-courses. The altitude was not more than 1,500 ft.

«4C ■

FROM THE ALTAI TO THE ILI 4O1

above sea-level, and the pleasant warmth of the air
felt like the heat of midsummer to us — fresh from the
bitter winds and exposure of the Mongolian plateau.
Small wonder is it that these low-lying valleys are
favoured so greatly as winter quarters by both Kirghiz
and Mongol shepherds; it arouses in us no surprise
that it was here Jenghis Khan made his principal " rendez-
vous," and here that he massed his troops before starting
westwards on his conquering marches.

The upper Irtish Valley is fairly well populated by
Torgut Mongols and Kirei Kirghiz ; there are possibili-
ties for cultivation and openings for trade ; it is also
probable that in the near future the Irtish River may
be used for the purposes of transport. In the summer the
Siberian Irtish is navigated as far up as Lake Zaisan — a
short distance away on the Russian side of the frontier ;
recently, however, it has been discovered that no reason
exists why the river should not be used for navigation
right up the junction of the Kran and the Irtish, at
a point not far below where we crossed the latter
river. Should this be carried out it would be a con-
siderable aid to the wool-merchants, who buy up the
produce of the flocks belonging to the Kirei and the
Torguts, as it would bring the Russian markets into
much closer communication with them.^

We crossed the Kran with ease by means of a shallow
ford, but found the Irtish just north of the Ulungur Lake
a deep-flowing, sluggish stream of a hundred yards in

^ A name which looms large on even quite recent maps is Bulon-tokhoi,
a town situated at the southern end of Lake Ulungur. Forty years ago
Russian travellers described the town as a fine centre for commercial pur-
poses, and as consisting of two quarters containing 160 houses of Chinese
and 1 50 of Mongols. Now, however, Bulon-tokhoi has disappeared, and
its trade has shifted to the better situated centre of Tulta or Sharasume.

402 DZUNGARIA

width, and we were obliged to search carefully before we
could find a place suitable for crossing without harm to
our baggage. The water was clear and blue, margined
by sand-banks, which showed that in time of flood the
river would be at least a hundred and fifty yards wide.

Beyond the Irtish extended a barren hill-country
leading over the Naryn Kara and the Kara-adir to the
Kobuk Valley, another centre of nomadic life. These
isolated localities, inhabited, probably, by people of
different races, are typical of Dzungaria ; to-day we
may be with the Turki-Kirei, to-morrow with a Mongol
colony ; while a week's journey over uninhabited
steppes may separate these from a Chinese town or a
Dungan settlement. The unusual variety of races in-
habiting Dzungaria gives an interest to a country
which might otherwise, from lack of character, be mono-
tonous and tedious to traverse.

This stage in our journey led us past Lake Ulungur,
which stores a large volume of water descending from
the slopes of the Altai, and apparently absorbs the same,
having no visible outlet. We caught glimpses of this
lake from the Naryn Kara range, and noted its char-
acter, as being that of a typical desert-lake : barren,
yellow, desert hills surrounded it ; no margin of green
bordered its shores, the only vegetation being a fringe
of dead reeds. A Russian explorer, Miroshnishenko,
took some trouble in 1873 to prove that the Lake
Ulungur must drain into the Irtish, which flows past
only four miles away. There is, however, no visible
communication between the two, though a Kirghiz legend
speaks of a subterranean passage connecting the lake
with the river. By measuring the volume of the
Irtish some way above the lake, and again below

FROM THE ALTAI TO THE ILI 403

Miroshnishenko found the flow of the river to increase
89,000 cubic ft. of water per minute, in spite of the fact
that the Irtish receives no tributaries throughout this
section of its course. The most recent scientific explorer
in these regions, Prof. Sapoznikoff, refutes this opinion,
basing his arguments on the following grounds. Firstly,
the water of the lake is at a lower level than that
of the Irtish ; secondty, the water is strongly saline
(2 gr. to the litre), a peculiarity of enclosed basins ;
and thirdly, neither the lake nor the river flowing into
it contain certain fish, peculiar to the Irtish. My own
opinion is that the Ulungur does not now connect with
the Irtish, although it may have done so at an earlier
period ; even then, it was not by the nearest route, on
the eastern side — where the Irtish and the lake are only
a few miles apart — but by way of the low-lying depression
on the west.

We camped for a night in this plain, called Mukutai,
and noted that, although the ground was very saline,
good grass grew, and there was a very large en-
campment of Kirei making use of it for pasture. The
whole of this depression showed signs of being under
water at certain seasons ; it is dead level, and the Ulungur
Lake spreads itself into it for some way in the form of
lagoons and shallows having no definite boundary. A
small rise of water in the lake would bring a great area
of the Mukutai plain under water. We camped about
ten miles from the margin of the lake ; on the other side
of us, at about twenty miles' distance, there was a small
stream which drained direct towards the Irtish River,
and, were it not for lack of water, would undoubtedly
reach it. Thus it seems that, if at one period the water
of the Lake Ulungur stood at a higher level, it must

404 DZUNGARIA

certainly have flowed out through this hollow, and
joined the Irtish some eighty miles farther to the north-
west.

Travelling westwards as rapidly as our well-laden
camels permitted, we arrived, three days after leaving
our camp near Ulungur, at the Kobuk Valley. The
Sair Mountains, rising on the north to an altitude of
12,000 ft., supplied ample water, which irrigated the
Kobuk pastures before running to waste in the deserts
to the south. Here we found a large community of
Torgut Mongols inhabiting a locality' which, since the
earliest daj^s of recorded history, has been a desirable
camping-ground. The story of the Torguts of the Kobuk
steppe, and of their migration from the far west has been
given in a previous chapter, and their past condition,
there described, is decidedly more interesting than their
present. Exceptional dirt and disease — even for Mongol
degenerates — made these people most objectionable
to deal with ; it is probable that at no very distant
date, the fast-increasing Kirghiz or Kasak tribes will
encroach on their territory to the lasting detriment
of the Torguts.

There was an air of settled life amongst the people
of the Kobuk, for the yurts clustered in closely packed
groups round the Buddhist temple and the residence
of their Chief. We observed attempts being made to
cultivate the soil, and the yurts frequently possessed
a "kraal" — or enclosure — close by, in which they kept
their flocks and a supply of hay for the winter's use.
The temple and its precincts, together with the abode
of the Chief, composed a block of buildings. The Chief,
who held the title of Wang, was the hereditary ruler of
the tribe, and, although the possessor of a house built

MAKANDAROFF AND HI^ li-.iS.

CAMP BREAKi-Asl.

404I

FROM THE ALTAI TO THE ILI 405

in a quaint mixture of Russian and Chinese styles, he
preferred to use his yurt. The Wang entertained us
in the house, which was furnished chiefly with large
mirrors and numerous clocks, besides a gramophone
and a photograph of himself !

The Kobuk being half-way between Sharasume and
Chuguchak, we changed our camels for fresh ones
supplied by the Wang, and made tracks westwards.
Camel transport is slow work under the best conditions,
and is exceptionally tedious when all ambition is centred
on advancing as quickly as possible and reaching one's
destination. The actual distances covered by either
camels or horses in a day's march does not really differ
to any great extent. Camels move more steadily and
slowly, keeping up continuously from dawn to dusk ;
horses, on the other hand, trek faster but for a shorter
time. We used to break camp every morning at 7, start
the caravan by 9 one, and travel till about 4.30 p.m.,
thus averaging fifteen to eighteen miles a day. We
covered the distance between the Altai and the town
of Chuguchak in two stages of nine and eight days each,
changing camels half-way. The cost of the eleven
camels and the six riding-horses came to about £22 for
the whole journey. We ourselves rode on horseback.
Our caravan had quite an imposing appearance, con-
sisting, as it did, of a string of eleven baggage-camels,
half a dozen natives — and our own party of four — all on
horseback ; added to which were nineteen of our
caravan-horses from far-distant Siberia. These were
driven along unladen, as we intended to sell them on
reaching a likely market.

Travelling by the longest stages allowed by the
rapidly shortening days, we left the Kobuk steppe and

4o6 DZUNGARIA

crossed a pass of 6,300 ft., called Kergen Tash, lying
between the Urkashar Range and the Sair Mountains.
This route led us into Russian territory for ten or twelve
miles, before it turned back and recrossed the frontier
at the Bai Musa Pass, which was an open gap, of 4,300 ft.
in altitude, between the Tarbagatai Range on the north
and the Kojur spur of the Urkashar on the south. As
a means of communication between the Chuguchak
district and that of Zaisan, this track, being suitable for
wheeled traffic, is of some importance. Even this short
return to Russian territory showed us definite traces
of Russian progression. We observed a picket of
frontier guards at the Bai Musa Pass, and in the distance
— ^northwards — a large new settlement, where there was
said to be a garrison of Cossacks and a go-ahead colony
of emigrants from Semipalatinsk.

The Emil Valley — which we passed through on our
way to Chuguchak — is of much historical interest.
This valley, situated on the main road between
Eastern and Western Asia, providing, as it does, the
one easy means of access from the east to the west,
is now, and always must have been, of great strategical
value. It was mentioned by Carpini, one of the earliest
Western writers, who travelled through the country on
his way to visit the court of Ku3'uk Khan — grandson
of Jenghis Khan — in Northern Mongolia. It must
have been in those days a district of real importance, for
Carpini wrote that the Mongols " had built anew, as
it were, a city called Omyl, in which the Emperor had
erected a house." Evidently the old city was destroyed
when Jenghis first sacked the Empire of the Kara-Kitai
— of which this district was a part. The Emil district
formed the seat of Kalmuk ascendanc}- at the end of

FROM THE ALTAI TO THE ILI 407

the seventeenth century, and it was here the Dzungars
fixed their capital during the short-lived period of their
empire. China now holds the upper half of the Emil
Valley, but Russia, holding the lower portion, exercises
her control over this gateway between east and west.

The district is, without doubt, a rich one ; it is low-
lying, well watered, and bordered on north and south
b}^ sheltering mountain-ranges. On entering we found
the country positively swarming with Kasaks, who were
moving with their flocks into their winter quarters in the
sheltered valleys of the Kojur and Urkashar ranges.
As far as the eye could see, were herds of horses and
flocks of sheep, numbering tens of thousands, ; here and
there were scattered villages of yurts and isolated
mud-houses — ^the farms of the sedentary Kasaks and
Chanto cultivators ; such a confusion of nomadic and
settled conditions of life we had never before witnessed.
Should a future colonization of the nomads' plain take
place on a large scale much trouble is obviously in store for
them. Even now the herds of the nomads were wander-
ing over the fields of the farmers ; but, as the harvest
was over and the grain being threshed, the confusion
was of no consequence.

A further sign of the approach of winter — confirmed
a week later by the first fall of snow — was a remark-
able migration of sand-grouse, which we watched on
October loth and nth, as we moved across the Emil
steppes. With a strong west wind behind them, large
packs and small parties of sand-grouse were to be seen
hurrying towards the south-east. During the two days'
trek the birds continued to pass over us, the large
packs flying high, but small flocks of half-dozens flying
quite low and all moving with the directness of flight

4o8 DZUNGARIA

and the great speed peculiar to the sand-grouse family.
The majority consisted of the common Central Asian
variety, Pallas' ; but there were also many large Black-
bellied Sand-grouse amongst them. This was probably
the great autumn migration of all the birds of the
Sergiopol and Semipalatinsk steppes to their winter
quarters, in the plain of Dzungaria.

On October nth we camped outside the high walls
of Chuguchak. Although we had been travelling for nearly
five months, this was the first town of any description
we had entered since leaving the Siberian town of
Minnusinsk, which showed the true character of the
Siberian-Chinese frontier, — a sparsely populated nomads' -
land, not requiring much administration. Chuguchak
was a typical Chinese town, as seen throughout
China Proper, with high walls, great gateways, and
yamens. There we found ourselves once more in touch
with civilization, for the Russian element brought into
the town an atmosphere of the West, and progress was
represented by the post-office and telegraph-lines ; we
could here telegraph, if we wished, to Pekin or Europe,
and did, actually, receive letters from Europe.

The population of Chuguchak is estimated at 9,000,
this figure including both Chinese and Russians, as well
as a very mixed community of traders who were called
Chantos if they were Chinese subjects, or Sarts
if they belonged to Russian Turkestan. There existed
also a small colony of true Russians and a few Tartars.
Business was at high pressure ; the streets were full
and the bazaars were crowded, the buyers being
chiefly Kirghiz and Kasaks from the surrounding steppe
purchasing their winter suppHes. An appearance of pro-
gress prevailed, as well as a somewhat blatant show of

FROM THE ALTAI TO THE ILI 409

military strength on the part of the Chinese, which
must have greatly amused our Russian friends. The
morning air resounded with bugle-calls and the
continual firing of salutes ; but it is doubtful whether
this suggestion of power impressed even the natives.

Chuguchak is the chief outlet to Siberia for all Dzun-
garia. Its future may be full of possibilities. Here
lies the only open road between Western China and
Russian Asia; for all other tracks, — with the sole ex-
ception of a peculiar deep-cut trench, the Dzungarian
Gate, which lies to the west of Chuguchak, — must pass
the mountain barrier. By way of an easily graded pass
of 5,945 ft. above sea-level, situated about eighty miles
to the south of the town, one can travel without
hindrance from the Siberian plains to the Dzungarian
deserts and on to China, Mongolia, or the Gates of
Pekin.

Although eager to pursue our journey to Kulja, and
with no desire to stay more than a day in Chuguchak,
we found ourselves delayed for fifteen days in the most
aggravating manner before being able to start again.
The nearness of a Russian post-road and its methods
of quick transport made us think of reaching Kulja
through Russian territory ; telegrams requesting per-
mission to do so were even despatched to the Governor-
General at Tashkent, but when the reply came that
the permit would have to be obtained in St. Petersburg,
former experience made us aware that, under the cir-
cumstances, it would be far quicker to walk to Kulja.

Two other routes were open to us : the road which
runs southwards, joins the Pei-lu, or northern high-road
in Southern Dzungaria, and thence turns westwards to
the Hi Valley ; or a horse-track running in a direct

410 DZUNGARIA

line over mountain, hill, and hollow by way of the
Barlik Mountains, the Dzungarian Gate, and the Lower
Borotala to Sairam Nor and the Hi Valley.

The former of these routes was a well-used trade-route,
divided into regular stages, by which means the journey
could be accomplished in twenty days. The country to
be passed through was uninteresting, had often been
traversed before, and the thought of spending twenty
days in carts did not in the least attract us. We decided
accordingly to take the most direct but most arduous
of the routes, and began to arrange our transport. The
finding of this delayed us still further, owing to its being
the busiest season for caravans. Eventually we pro-
cured thirteen camels from a Chanto owner, at the rate
of 365. per camel for the journey of eighteen to twenty
days ; the Chinese authorities supplied us with two
" jigits," or out-riders, who would escort us from one
frontier guard-house, or " karaul," to another ; and
finally, on October 27th, we set off in very bad weather,
over the Emil plain, at that time half under water and
most unsuitable for camel transport.^

The route we followed was practically the frontier
line of the two Empires ; we managed to reach a Chinese
guard-house each day, and were informed of the existence
of corresponding Russian posts to our west. On one
occasion we actually visited a small post which served as
a quarantine station for all cattle and flocks going from
China into Russian territory ; apart from this we saw
nothing to indicate that we were anywhere near the
frontier. As we rode along the foot-hills of the Barlik

^ We had the first touch of winter during the third week in October,
■when snow fell, which later turned to rain. The temperature varied,
during the period between the 13th and 27th, from 80° to 12" Fahr.

FROM THE ALTAI TO THE ILI 411

group ^ we beheld, spread out to the west, a wonderful ex-
panse of steppes and of lakes, shimmering as in a mirage,
giving strange contrasts of blue and of yellow, and
stretching in endless succession as far as the eye could
reach towards the distant plains of Northern Turkestan.
On the east the Barlik ranges rose to an altitude of
9,500 ft., and, far away in the dim distance, the loftier
snows of the Ala-tau lifted themselves into the blue ;
but, separating us from them, was a break in the moun-
tain-wall,— a deep-cut depression dividing the Siberian
plains from the Dzungarian deserts, and lying between
the ramparts of the Ala-tau on the west and those of
the Barlik on the east.

We had frequently heard of the terrors, dangers, and
winds of the Dzungarian Gate. We had read the records
of such early travellers as Carpini and Rubruck, both
of whom mentioned that " there blows nearly continu-
ously such a wind through this valley, that persons
cross it with great danger, lest the wind should carry
them into the sea." We therefore approached this
remarkable geological phenomenon both with interest
and a certain amount of anxiety, for the weather was
unusually unsettled, snow-clouds were threatening us,
and we were unwilling our caravan should be " blown
away into the sea."

Even at a distance, with the Dzungarian Gate lying
before us — unseen, we instinctively became aware of its
presence ; for when we came within sight of Ala Kul,
whilst crossing the open foot-hills of the Barlik Range

^ The Barlik proper overlooks the Dzungarian Gate on the east.
We found the natives using BarUk for the whole mountain-group to the
east. I use the term, therefore, to include the Chagan-oba, the Dzusau>
and the Maili ranges.

412 DZUNGARIA

some twenty miles from the lake-shore and some 2,000 ft.
above it, we were in absolute stillness ; and yet, strangely
enough, the waters of Ala Kul were tossed into waves —
the white crests being clearly seen with a glass, while
even with the naked eye breakers could be distinguished
dashing on to the southern shore of an island in the
middle of the lake. Although we were becalmed, there
was evidently a gale blowing through the " Gate,"
and as we approached nearer we became at every step
more keenly alive to the action of this wind-trough.
At night we heard a distant roar as the imprisoned
winds of the Dzungarian deserts escaped through this
narrow defile. The only night we camped on the
very shore of the straits, the wind increased to such
a violence that our tents, though well protected in a
valley, were by the morning all blown away, for the
wind swept in great gusts over the hills, and the
back eddies tore them down ; the noise was terrific,
and sleep out of the question. This wind came from
the south, but threatening storm-clouds to the north
made us far more uneasy.

Fortunately we succeeded in crossing the depression
in a nine hours' trek without mishap, a strong head-wind
being the only cause for annoyance. Had there been
rain or snow falling, travelling would have been im-
possible, but the wind was luckily from the south and
comparatively warm, the temperature at night only
just touching freezing-point. Only just in time did we
escape from this home of the winds, for the day after
crossing the valley, — when travelling southwards along
its western flanks, — the wind swung round to the north
and swept cruelly through the gap, bringing with it hail
and frozen snow. Had we then been journeying north-

FROM THE ALTAI TO THE ILI 413

wards the making of any headway would have been out
of the question, for neither man nor beast could have
faced the elements ; travelling as we were — with the
wind — we endured the cold and congratulated ourselves
on our fortunate escape. A bleak, inhospitable land-
scape now surrounded us, mountains, clad in fresh snow,
showed up here and there through breaks in the blurred
atmosphere, and great cloud-banks swept through the
*' straits," as if rushing through some gigantic funnel.
We enjoyed no rest until we were safely ensconced in
the broken and wind-worn granite range lying to the
north-west of Ebi Nor.

The natives relate the usual traditions as to the
origin of the winds in this locality. In the myths
of Central Asia a ''hole in the mountain," or "an
iron gate in a lake " is the usual explanation of the
origin of winds. In the case of which I am writing
the island called Ala-tyube — a small extinct volcano in
Ala Kul — is made responsible for the furious winds which
sweep through the depression ; the wind is called " ebe,"
or " yube " by the Kirghiz, and in special cases, when
it reaches its maximum velocity, the term " buran " is
applied. From autumn to spring the prevailing wind
is from the south-east.^ I think, however, that the

^ I found considerable difficulty in getting reliable information as
to the prevailing winds of this district. A Russian who had lived at a
frontier post in the Dzungarian Gate said that the strongest biu^ans always
came from the south-east, while the rain-winds came from the north-west.
He said that " the air was always moving," but that autumn and spring
were especially marked as the windy seasons. Chinese soldiers in the
guard-houses on the high-road which passes the south end of Ebi Nor
where there is a belt of sand-dunes, claimed that, when the sand moved,
it always came from the north-west, or the direction of the Dzungarian Gate.
Their statement was proved by the fact that their guard-houses in the
sand-belt were banked up by high sand-dunes on the north-west. The
burans, they said, also came from the direction of the Gate. In contra-

414 DZUNGARIA

wind which causes havoc amongst the nomads, and kills
off men and flocks when caught unprotected, is this
north wind when it attains the velocity of what is called
a " buran."

We experienced one buran only during our journey
across Asia, and it took place in this very locality during
the following summer. On June 2oth a buran struck
us from the north when camped on the south side of
the main ridge of the Dzusau portion of the Barlik
group, which stood up like a wall close above our camp,
and gave us protection from that quarter. In Central
Asia the highest gale is inconsiderable in comparison
with a buran. A vast difference lies between the
two : a buran blows steadily, without lulls, and with
a force against which it is useless to contend.

Miller describes how this buran caught him, when on a
hunting expedition : — "On the second day away an ever-
increasing wind began to blow from the north-west,
though the sky was cloudless. By the evening it had
blown up into such a gale that we had the greatest diffi-
culty in reaching the yurts for which we were making.
It was all our horses could do to move against the force
of the wind, which frequently shifted us in our saddles.
By night-time the yurt in which we had taken shelter
began to suffer. The huge pieces of felt which covered
the roof worked loose, and were whisked away, causing
the frame-work to rattle down upon us. It was only the

diction of this, 1 noticed that all the sand-dunes at the south end of
Ebi Nor were formed by winds which must have blown from the east-
north-east. Ebi Nor, by its very name, is " A%-ind-lake," and it would
be hard to give an impression of the sight its frozen waters presented in
mid\\'inter. We saw it in January, from the crest of a sand-dune on
its southern edge. Its southern shores were a jumble of great blocks
of ice piled up in fantastic shapes, and the actual surface of the ice was
as if its waves had been instantaneously frozen sohd in stormy weather.

; !

FROM THE ALTAI TO THE ILI 415

heavy pile of household belongings heaped against the
wall that kept it standing, and afforded us shelter. The
morning light revealed the havoc which had been
wrought. Some of the yurts had been blown over intact,
and lay on their sides like discarded bee-hives, while
others had been completely demolished, and this in
spite of the fact that a yurt, owing to its shape and con-
struction, is of all tents the most perfectly adapted to
withstand wind. Our own flimsy tents had, of course,
been demolished at an early hour, and an uncomfortable
night was spent in holding on to various belongings."

But that was in summer, and under the leeward side
of a mountain-range. I leave the reader to imagine
what the buran would have been in the trough of the
Dzungarian Gate, carrying possibly frozen snow, or
sand, and in the winter, when the atmosphere with no
wind is scarcely endurable, and when the temperature
runs down to —20° and —30° Fahrenheit. Stories are
told of shepherds and their flocks being killed off after a
few hours' exposure to the winter burans, it being the
chief concern of the nomads of the district to find
shelter from these terrific wind-storms.

The Dzungarian Gate is a defile about six miles wide
at its narrowest point, and forty-six miles long, con-
necting Southern Siberia with Dzungaria. It forms a
natural pathway from the plateau of Mongolia to the
great plain of North-western Asia, and is the one and only
gateway in the mountain-wall which stretches from Man-
churia to Afghanistan, over a distance of three thousand
miles. On the west, the Ala-tau drops suddenly from
peaks above snow-line to the level of the floor of the
depression, 700 ft. above the level of the ocean, — the
lowest altitude in the inland basins of Central Asia, with
II — 7

4i6 DZUNGARIA

the exception of the Turfan depression, which is actually
below sea-level. Several deep-cut valleys drain the
waters from these highlands into the gorge and supply
the waters of Lakes Zalanash and Ala KuL On the east
the exceedingly arid and denuded slopes of the Barlik
rise at an easier gradation than do the ranges to the
west. The country immediately facing the depression
on the east is barren, rugged, and scarred with dry
ravines ; farther back it rises eventually to about
5,000 ft. in altitude. The actual floor of the depression
consists of a smooth, level, gravelly steppe, swept clean
of all loose material by the winds which unceasingly rush
backwards and forwards through the trough. At the
northern end of the gorge reed-beds extend over the
swampy southern end of Lake Zalanash ; there are also
reed-beds and a little grass close to a small spring of
water near the centre.

The general aspect, however, is "an abomination of
desolation," the scene of perpetual storms and great
extremes of climate. During the winter the choice of
a bad day to cross the depression may cause disaster
to both man and beast, while in summer the intense heat
experienced in this low hollow is almost as dangerous.
Our own experience of crossing in June was not of the
most comfortable nature, our horses and dogs being
lamed by the roughness of the surface and exhausted
by the heat.

As a geological and physical phenomenon, the Dzun-
garian Gate is as unusual as that of the Jordan depres-
sion. They are both examples of a rift-valley caused by
the movement of the earth's crust, not by the action of
water. This valley once formed the connecting link
between the drainage of Dzungaria and that of Southern

FROM THE ALTAI TO THE ILI 417

Siberia. The chain of lakes at either end of the valley
(Balkash, Ala Kul, Ebi Nor, etc.), are the remains of the
great Asiatic Mediterranean Sea ; if their waters were
to rise a few hundred feet they would break through the
Gate, flooding the plains to the north and south. Even
within the historical period it is probable that some of
these lakes, now quite isolated, were then connected.
Rubruck mentions that, when passing Ala Kul in 1254,
he could see " another big sea " through the gorge, and
that the two were connected by a river ; Rockhill, in his
translation of Rubruck, suggests that the other " big sea "
is Ebi Nor. This is improbable, however, Ebi Nor not
being visible from the Siberian side of the gorge ; my own
opinion is that it was the Zalanash Lake — in the northern
mouth of the gorge — that Rubruck saw.

In prehistoric days the Dzungarian Gate must have
presented a still more wonderful sight. It then formed
a narrow strait joining the Dzungarian inlet with the
vast seas of Western Siberia. " This was probably in
the recent Quaternary and also in the Tertiary times.
Deep deposits of fine mud, now carved out by streams
into rolling downs, are to be seen on the north side of
the Barlik Mountains. There deposits containing marine
shells, which will probably prove to be Quaternary, rise
to the altitude of 3,100 ft. Near the Barlik Range there
is abundant evidence of marine glaciation, — the debris of
icebergs from a frozen sea. Nearer to the gorge the mud-
deposits begin ; they contain seams of pebbles, — false-
bedded, showing that the currents and tides must have
been strong.

" One can picture the Dzungarian Gate in the Ice
Age: a narrow strait through which the Arctic-Aralo-
Caspian Sea ebbed and flowed into the seas of Central

4i8 DZUNGARIA

Asia, scoured by icebergs descending from ancient glaciers
on the Ala-tau and Barlik Mountains and forested
perhaps down to the water's edge, — not unhke the Straits
of Belle Isle at the present day. Now a change has been
wrought ; earth-movement has drained the sea. But
away to the north there still remain the lakes of Ala
Kul, Sasik Kul, and Balkash, and on the south Ebi
Nor, — pools left in the desert — all that remains of the
great icy sea. The alluvial plains, once its bed, are now
covered by desert grasses, while the forest clings only to
the shaded slopes and gullies on the northern slopes of
the mountains." *

The Dzungarian Gate, however, is not such an im-
portant dividing-line as might be expected, for although
the Barlik — on the one side — was at one period geo-
graphically cut off from the Ala-tau portion of the Tian
Shan mountain-system — on the other side, — yet geologi-
cally they appear to be the same, and, judging from the
observations we made during our visit to these ranges
in the summer of 1911, we find the Barlik is really also
linked to the Tian Shan group by ties of similarity of
flora and fauna. For instance, the spruce-pine peculiar
to the Tian Shan {Abies schrenkiana) grows on the Barlik
group but does not extend farther to the east ; these
mountains forming also the north-easterly limit of the
Chukar Partridge (Caccahis chukar). " The real dividing-
line between Tian Shan and Altai types probably lies
somewhere between the Barlik group and the Sair Moun-
tain, and not, as might be expected, in the rift-like
depression called the Dzungarian Gate.^ The Sair Moun-

1 Price's brief summary of his observations, as published in the
Geographical Journal for February 191 1.

" The question of the easterly continuation of this dividing-Une between;
the Tian Shan and Altai is dealt with in the Appendixes.

FROM THE ALTAI TO THE ILI 419

tains — an easterly extension of the Tarbagatai — were not
explored by our party, but it was noticed that they formed
the southern limit of the Siberian larch. Between these
ranges, the Barlik and the Sair, are other mountain-groups
which must at one period have formed a chain of islands
in a wide strait, connecting the northern sea with the
seas of Central Asia ; the Dzungarian Gate was merely
a strait between one of the islands (the Barlik) and the
mainland of Ala-tau."

Remarkable as are the geological and geographical
features of the Dzungarian Gate, its historical aspect
also lays a claim to our interest. Such a scene as the
Dzungarian Gate presents to the onlooker appeals most
strongly to the imagination. One is tempted to look
back into the past, and conjure up the scenes of which
this great natural highway must have been a silent
witness. This special route must have been the one
through which the invading hordes of Asiatics marched
w^estwards ; every succeeding wave of migration that
swept across Asia must have passed through these narrow
*' straits." This was the natural route for merchants,
caravans, and for all nations on migration bent ; no small
part has this deep-cut gorge played in the history of
Asia and even of Europe. It requires but a stretch of
imagination to recall the thundering tramp of passing
armies and to hear the strain of wild barbaric
music, as savage hosts of Huns, Mongols, and Turks —
filled with lust of conquest — moved westwards, eager
for the spoil of the great cities of the Turkestan plains
lying beyond the mountain-barrier, the Dzungarian
Gate alone allowing these mounted troops to continue,
unhindered, their conquering way. Samarkand, Bok-
hara, Persia, Russia, lay beyond ; the plains, their own

420 DZUNGARIA

free, open plains, led them irresistibly onwards to the
very gates of Europe !

A peculiar feature of travel in Central Asia is the
sudden manner in which a new country opens up before
the traveller. Through gaining the summit of a small
pass, or the rounding of some, it may be, insignificant
shoulder, he may come within view of an immense
stretch of country never seen nor even guessed at
by him before. Such a view was obtained as we left
the Dzungarian Gate and climbed the foot-hills of the
wind-worn granite range situated to the north-west of
Ebi Nor. Over the lake, and appearing to rise out of
it, the chain of the Tian Shan — the great mountain -
system of Central Asia — was spread out in long array,
its snow-clad summits stretching unbroken across the
whole width of the horizon. All this had been com-
pletely hidden from us up to this moment, and this
sudden introduction gave us a clearer understanding
of the vastness of Central Asia.

We now followed an easy route across the lower
portion of the Borotala Valley, over the Kanjik Range
by a nine-thousand foot pass, into the basin of Sairam
Nor and joined the Chinese Imperial High-road at the
wayside station of Santai, which connects the towns of
Dzungaria with the Hi Valley. Once on the road we
made fair pace and reached Kulja on November 14th,
nineteen days after leaving Chuguchak.

Kulja and the IH Valley are too well known to need
description. They are outside the regions we had under-
taken to study ; in fact, we were only induced to visit
this locality by the opportunities it gave us for recon-
structing our caravan, for despatching our collections

FROM THE ALTAI TO THE ILI 421

to England, and, incidentally, for resting a short time
after seven months of continual travel.

Our stay in Kulja was made pleasant by the hospitality
afforded us by Father Raemdonck, a Belgian missionary,
who placed a house at our disposal and gave us such
help as cannot be adequately acknowledged by words
of thanks. On November 26th our party was broken
up by the departure of Price for England. Travelling
by way of Tashkent, Transcaspia, and the Caucasus, he
reached England in March 1911, and has since written
an account of the social and political condition of Siberia,
from impressions he gained during this journey. He
took with him Makandaroff, our interpreter, whose
place was filled by John Pereira, a Cingalese — of great
parts — who had lived at different times in Pekin, St.
Petersburg, Chinese Turkestan, and England, who could
not only speak several languages, but cook a good dinner.
From Kulja I wished to send home my maps and
notes, up to date, so as not to run any risk through
carrying them over thousands of miles of country. This
was arranged through the kindness of Mr. T. P. Miller,
who was on his way back to England after a hunting-
trip in the Tian Shan, and who undertook to convey
them home.

All were delivered safely to the Royal Geographical
Society, but the maps and notes did not reach their
destination without some risk, as well as giving consider-
able trouble to the bearer, for immediately Mr. Miller
crossed the frontier into Russian Turkestan he was
arrested, and maps, diaries, and note-books were con-
fiscated. To all intents and purposes the results of the
last seven months' work were lost ; however, owing to the
apparent inability of the secret-service officials to read

422 DZUNGARIA

the various papers they had got hold of, and by a display
of bluff on the part of Mr. Miller, all were eventually
returned intact.

In arranging a programme of exploration in Central
Asia, the traveller has one great difficulty to contend
with — namely, the winter. Some, having experience
of lower latitudes, may be prone to criticize ; but let them
remember that in these regions the explorer has practic-
ally to stop work for four months owing to the cold.
From November to March we found it impossible to do
any survey-work ; the forming of scientific collections
was out of the question, and it was with difficulty that
we gained any knowledge of the character of the country,
for all was hidden under snow. On the road through
Southern Dzungaria we hoped to get an idea of the
number and size of the rivers ; but we were baulked in
our efforts, for we could not locate them; ice covered
the rivers, and snow hid the ice. The land-relief was
equally deceiving ; small depressions assumed gigantic
proportions, and low ranges of hills had the appearance
of high mountains.

During December and the first half of January we
amused ourselves in various ways. Miller went off, in
spite of the cold, to the Kok-su Valley in the Tian Shan
to try for wapiti, where he remained for two weeks
without getting a chance of securing that most valued
of trophies. I remained in Kulja the greater part of
the time, plotting out my plane-table sheets, in pre-
paration for next summer's work. I prepared, on a
scale of 1:400,000, large sheets of all the Russian maps
of the regions we hoped to visit, on which I intended
to sketch in all the fresh detail that I obtained. This
work was varied by duck-flighting, — various hot springs

FROM THE ALTAI TO THE ILI 423

allowing many wild-fowl to remain in this ice-bound
country, — ^which gave me amusement for about twenty
minutes every evening ; while a visit to the valley
of the Kash, right affluent of the Hi, supplied all the
specimens of the pheasants of the locality that I desired
for my collection. On Miller's return from the Kok-su
we began to arrange our plans for our journey to the
far east of Dzungaria.

CHAPTER XV

A WINTER JOURNEY IN SOUTHERN DZUNGARIA ; ALONG
THE " IMPERIAL HIGH-ROAD " FROM KULJA TO KUMUL

Snow had fallen on several occasions since our arrival
in Kulja. Not in the great, slow-falling flakes of an
English winter, but in a steady, continual fall of minute
particles. These fell swiftly, and lay or drifted, as
the case might be, whether in sheltered valleys or on
open steppe, causing the immense Central Asian land-
scape of endless plains and gigantic ranges to be under
a mantle of glistening snow-fields. The white expanse
lay unbroken, except where black lines of dead vegeta-
tion defined the river-courses or where dark blue
shadows on the mountains proved the existence of *' riven
ravine and splintered precipice," — where snow found no
resting-place. Central Asia — always a land of immen-
sity— is seen at its best and in its truest character in
midwinter. The countless leagues of " white silence "
then produce an awe-inspiring impression, but during the
hot, dusty summer the dreary monotony of the region
dissipates this impression, and although its vastness
dwarfs all one's previous ideas of sameness, no sense of
attraction remains.

The dreary winter began at the end of November

in the Hi Valley. It commenced with a series of snow-

424

FROM KULJA TO KUMUL 425

storms accompanied by a hard frost ; by the first
week in December the IH River was frozen stiff, and the
whole land was frost-bound. Snow occurred every
ten or twelve days, the intervening period bringing
bright and sunny weather with a very low temperature.
So long as the air was still, the 50 degrees or so of frost
were not much felt ; but when the wind rose the elements
were too severe for man to face.

Across the frozen landscape moved occasional natives^
Kalmuks and Kirghiz, wrapped in great sheepskin coats
and wearing fox-skin headgear, or Chinamen in quilted
jackets and quaint, but most practical, ear-caps. For
the most part the inhabitants of this dreary land had
gone into winter quarters, — hibernating, in fact, — and
would not appear again until the following spring. The
groaning ox-wagons gave place to silent sledges, and men
used this easy mode of transport to move their grain and
merchandise ; consequently, the noisy bazaars of Kulja
— trade centre of the Hi Valley — became silent owing to
the wheelless traffic.

The great trade-routes of the world are now almost
entirely superseded by railways or lines of steamships.
The tea-trade of China is carried to Europe by ship,
and men go to Mecca by railway. In far-distant and
exceptionally isolated regions alone are the old caravan-
tracks still in use as they were a thousand years ago.
It is to Asia, with her civilization of immense antiquity,
that we must look in order to find this state of affairs ;
Asia, where men are still " plunged in thought," still
heedless of the West, where commerce and transport
are still solely dependent upon beasts of burden, where
the old routes, which always carried the trade between
Europe and Far Cathay, are still in use, where the same

426 SOUTHERN DZUNGARIA

difficulties beset one and the same old caravanserais give
one shelter.

Not until we reached Southern Dzungaria did we
come in contact with the great high-roads and caravan-
routes which connect East and West, and which are to-
day as they ever have been since the Far East first
attracted the attention of the West and the two sought
each other's company. North of this zone little inter-
course has been carried on. What trade could flourish
between China and Siberia, and what could the cold
north-land send to China with the exception of a few
furs ?

We can well visualize the varied scenes that the high-
road granted in the old days, before modern methods
of transport diverted the trade. In those early days
the markets of China exchanged their wares for those
of Western Asia, traffic poured in and out through these
landward gates of the Empire, and endless caravans
bore the wealth of Cathay to Western bazaars. A vast
internal trade between town and town added to the
throng of transport-animals and foot-passengers on the
highways. Thousands of donkeys pattered along the
road, and strings of groaning ox-wagons moved at even
slower pace than the stately lines of great Bactrian
camels. The gorgeous cortege of a Chinese official, —
with an armed escort, moving on the Emperor's
business, — was surpassed by that of some great Mandarin,
borne in a high-wheeled mule-cart at gentler pace,
relays of transport animals taking him from post to
post ; following in his wake was a slower-moving
cavalcade composed of his wives and concubines and a
host of retainers. Amongst all these travellers and
caravans of merchandise, by the road-side in the dust

FROM KULJA TO KUMUL 427

moved a host of foot-passengers, — colonists, pedlars, and
beggars.

The outlying provinces of the great Chinese Empire
are even now only connected by roads with the heart of
the Empire, and it will be long before the shriek of the
locomotive replaces the bells of the camel-caravan. It
requires months for a despatch from the capital to reach
the Governors of these regions, officials travel by cart
for four months from Pekin to take up their posts, while
emigrants think nothing of eight months on the road
before arriving at their destination.

Hi, one of the richest as well as the most remote of
Chinese possessions, is linked up with Pekin by over
2,000 miles of roadway, the track owning the high-
sounding title of the " Chinese Imperial High-road.*^
" Imperial " in name, but not in design ; for at its best it
is a mockery of a high -way. In its varying degrees of
excellence it corresponds to the different stages through
which the " Great Wall " passes on its course of 1,500
miles. This typical Chinese monument, which at the
Pekin end, under the eyes of the Emperor, is a magnificent
brick-built structure, dwindles eventually into a broken
mud wall, and, farther away, degenerates to occa-
sional, isolated watch-towers. In the same way the
Chinese Imperial High-road deludes the traveller at the
Pekin end, but becomes a sad reality farther west ta
those who are unlucky enough to travel over it. No
one would do so of choice, for in summer the traveller
is smothered in dust, choked by heat, or poisoned by
brackish water, whilst in winter he is lucky if he survives
the cold and the filthy caravanserais which render his
life intolerable. Nevertheless, in blissful ignorance of
such things we made our preparations, and arranged

428 SOUTHERN DZUNGARIA

for transport to carry us over 800 miles of the worst
section of this road, from Kulja to Kumul on the edge of
the Gobi.

Being winter, this route alone was open to us, and
we had no choice but to follow the high-road, which
passes out of the Hi Valley over the Boro-Khoro range
by the Talki Pass, and, entering Dzungaria, leads by a
route of unrelieved monotony along its southern borders.
This is the Pei-lu — the " great North Road " of the
Chinese ; it runs along the northern side of the Tian
Shan Mountains, and is thus called in order to distinguish
it from the Nan-lu, or South Road, which runs the entire
length of Chinese Turkestan on the south side of the Tian
Shan. Had it been summer we might have varied the
tediousness of a continuous cart-journey along the high-
road by taking a mountain-track for a portion of the
way ; but even in the best season these hill-tracks in
the Tian Shan are difficult and dangerous, while the
time occupied in traversing them would be far greater
than that entailed by the journey along the main-road.

*rhe season of the year, which limited us in our choice
of routes, also permitted only one method of transport.
The deep snow and the bitter winds rendered exposure
dangerous even to the inured and hardened natives ;
transport by camel or horse-caravan would have been
impossible in the face of such intense cold, with so great
a distance to cover ; the only other means of getting to
Kumul was by cart.

The Chinese officials and merchants — all, in fact, who
can afford to do so — travel over the roads of the New
Dominion by wheel-transport. They come from rail-
head at Honan in China Proper to these far western
dependencies by cart ; when they have served their

FROM KULJA TO KUMUL 429

appointments or made their " pile " they return by
cart, thinking nothing of the time occupied by such a
slow method of transport so long as it does not entail
any undue exertion on their part. In Kulja we found
a useful adaptation of the Russian " telega," or springless,
four-wheeled cart, which was far more useful and con-
siderably lighter than the high, heavily built, two-wheeled
carts generally used by the Chinese. The Dungan
owners — for the Mohammedans appear to have the mono-
poly of the carrying-trade in Western China — ran these
** telegas " from Kulja to Urumchi in eighteen or twenty
days. They charged 55 tael (about £6) for a winter's
journey when fodder was scarce and dear, but slightly
less during the summer months. The actual distance
between the two towns was 432 miles, divided up into
eighteen stages. The stages averaged 90 li each, which
corresponds to about thirty miles ; we found, however,
that the Chinese mode of reckoning distances was very
unreliable ; an easy downhill stage of about 90 li often
being found to consist ol 120, or even more ; whereas a
sandy track, without water, would be considered 90 li
because it felt like 90, when in reality it should have
been 60 li.

On January 14th we rattled out of the famiUar old
bazaars of Kulja, and, to the " Hoa-hoa-hoa " of the
drivers, drove out across the melancholy, dreary land-
scape of the Hi Valley. In six hours we made the
Chinese town of Sweeting, a " rabbit-warren " of a
place, a maze of mud-walls, a city risen out of the
ashes of destruction, and repeopled after horrible
massacres. The history of the Hi Valley is somewhat
like that of the valley of the Hoang Ho. Periodically
nature has let loose floods, — either of water or human

430 SOUTHERN DZUNGARIA

floods of fanatics, — over these two luxuriant valleys, with
disastrous results to tens of thousands of Celestials.
No sooner, however, do the floods recede, or are the
insurrections quelled, than the Chinese swarm again
into the valleys, where they live, as it were, on the slopes
of a volcano. No other fact shows so well the remarkable
tenacity of the race. The Yellow River overflows its
banks and drowns millions of human beings, but im-
mediately the dykes are rebuilt the Chinese go back
to cultivate the soil, heedless of the future, until once
again catastrophe bursts upon them. So with the Hi
Valley ; its fertility attracts them to such a degree
that they shut their eyes to the possibility of annihila-
tion. It has been said of the British, that they are
like ants : if one finds a good bit of meat, a thousand
will follow. I think this applies equally to the Chinese,
that slow, persistent race, to whom neither the Hi Valley
nor the valley of the Hoang-Ho will ever be lost, — not
even in the face of the greatest of calamities.

The next day we reached Lao-tzao-gou, a small
village now, but formerly one of the six towns of the Hi
Valley. The old walls and parapets, showing its former
size and ancient importance, were now merely the haunts
of owls and foxes, while the rich lands around them
awaited the hand of the cultivator. So we passed on,
out of the Unhappy Valley, up through the winding
Talki Gorge, where the highway first shows any signs
of actual road-making. This track alone gives access,
to Turkestan from China, and all who come or go must
pass by this route ; of necessity, therefore, the road has
been built up to some pretension of a highway.

That night we spent in a miserable serai at the foot
of the pass, and as bad weather came on we had to make

FROM KULJA TO KUMUL 431

the best of a whole day in our very draughty, cold
quarters, being afraid to negotiate the pass in such rough
weather. The wind grew to a hurricane, the snow drifted
accordingly, whilst we smoked ourselves out of our mud-
built room in vain attempts to keep warm. A few
inhabitants of the miserable place came to stare at us,
and their dogs in turn fought my dog ; and so we spent
a somewhat melancholy day. In winter these serais
are the very essence of discomfort, and most unattractive.
Men do not choose these cruel months in which to travel,
for food is scarce and dear ; all who have business to
transact accomplish their work during the summer.

The inevitable carts, laden heavily with merchandise
and goods from Pekin, are, of course, always encumbering
the road, and, now and then, the retinue of some Chinese
official moving to a new post ; these, together with caval-
cades of Kalmuks, Chinese soldiers, and nondescript
foot-passengers, make up the list of winter travellers.
Yet we saw this same portion of the road in late
autumn, when the Talki Pass was literally blocked with
traffic, and the serais were full to over-flowing. Here,
in this veritable Suez Canal of Central Asia, crowded
the entire trade and traffic that exists between Cathay
and Western Asia. There were Chinese horsemen, well-
mounted and proud of purse, and miserable foot-sore
emigrants bound for the Hi Valley — the El Dorado of
the Celestials. There were long caravans of camels laden
with grain, cotton, and felt ; lumbering carts and fast,
three-horsed coaches, which came in a cloud of dust —
carrying passengers between the few and far-removed
towns. All these crowded the high-road in summer, as
well as slither-heeled Tartars, slouching Mongols, Mussul-
man merchants, and crafty Dungans.
II— 8

432 SOUTHERN DZUNGARIA

When we eventually tackled the Talki Pass we found
it so bad for carts that we feared a long delay. Snow
had drifted across the track, and our spades were in
constant use. Streams, which flowed across the road,
had frozen solid in flowing, and the white track pre-
sented the appearance of a miniature glacier. But with
five horses to each cart we succeeded in reaching the
summit of the pass — hot and panting in spite of 40° of
frost and a biting wind. Below the pass was a guard-
house, occupied by Chinese soldiers whose business it
was to keep the road open. Their laziness, no doubt,
accounted for the hopeless state of the track, when very
little work would have kept it free from ice-floes.

We now entered upon the wide plain of Sairam Nor,
whose immense sheet of water lay under ice, and whose
panorama consisted of an unbroken snow-field. A long,
downhill " rough and tumble " brought us to Santai, a
rather more numerous collection of hovels and inns than
usual, situated on the edge of the lake. Close by here the
road was built out round a rocky promontory which jutted
out into the lake and which, by the nature of the ground,
formed a strategical point. Here the ponderous Celes-
tials had built mud fortifications to guard the road,
a sign of strength, no doubt, but quite inadequate. A
group of twenty-four grave-mounds, near by, suggested
a conflict at some time or other. Leaving Santai, we
passed through the gaps between the Kanjik and Kuz-
imchik ranges, by means of which the whole of the basin
of Sairam Nor must, at one time, have been drained,
before a land-movement blocked the passage.^

Once out of the Sairam Nor basin we made good
pace into the plains of Dzungaria. The next stopping-

^ See Appendix B.

FROM KULJA TO KUMUL 433

place, Sutai, we considered to be a still more melancholy
spot for a halt ; not a blade of grass or scrub, nor even
water, was to be found, while the foul mud-huts, and the
evil-looking rascals inhabiting them, did not make the
place more inviting. We found gazelle near by, but,
failing in our attempts to hunt them by driving, we once
again resorted to our old occupation of smoking our-
selves warm.

Later we decided, since there was a good moon, to
make a night-drive, and accordingly, after a good meal,
hitched up and started off. The road was simply a stony
waste, over which we bumped and rattled to the " Hoa-
hoa-hoa ! " of the drivers, till the dawn flushed the sky
and we turned out, lit a fire of scrub near the road, and
warmed ourselves.

Thus we journeyed, da}^ by day, across Southern
Dzungaria. It would be tedious, and vastly uninteresting,
to describe every stage of the forty that lay between
Kulja and Kumul; it is hard, however, to give a true
impression of the region without undue monotony of
description.

We usually drove for about seven or eight hours,
and averaged twenty to thirty miles a day; sometimes
we drove all night, but we gave this up after losing two
horses from frost-bite. If, when travelling at night,
we pulled up even for a few minutes, to let the sweating
horses gain their breath, they ran the risk of freezing
as they stood.

At this season of the year the track was comparatively
good, for the hard frozen snow had filled up the in-
equalities of the ground and made the going easy ; there
was no dust, and the air was glorious.

The location of the stopping-places controlled our

434 SOUTHERN DZUNGARIA

stages ; these were sometimes a farce, as frequently neither
food nor water could be procured, and occasionally we
sent our men a mile to cut ice with which to cook, and
even this we had to buy !

The same type of cheerless serai offered us a resting-
place each night, the same skin-clad native bade us
welcome, and tried to cheat us on the bill when we
departed next morning. The serais were always quad-
rangular structures composed of many small rooms, like
cubicles, boasting paperless windows, and no chimney ;
some possessed a larger (and colder) guest-chamber for
the use of Chinese olhcials when on the road ; but we
nearly always used the smaller ones, being the more
easily heated.

On arrival a sleepy, " huddled-up " native, looking
twice his natural size owing to the number of sheep-skin
coats he was wearing, would kindle a smoky fire, whilst
our servants commandeered every egg the village could
produce. The food-supply was sometimes an important
question, for the markets seemed to disappear like
the inhabitants during the winter months, and we could
not always rely upon getting the most ordinary articles
of diet. Nights were often made hideous by the quarrel-
ling animals ; there were always dog-fights ; and I re-
member, on one occasion, the whole inn was kept awake
by the mad ravings of a holy man, a Dungan lunatic at
large. If the serais were too uninviting, or the smoky
rooms impossible to rest in, we were always able to resort
to our carts for the nights.

One advantage alone seemed to result from a winter's,
journey along the Imperial High-road, and that arose
from the fact that everything was frozen solid ; the
insanitary conditions of our surroundings were thus

FROM KULJA TO KUMUL 435

without danger. Even dead camels lying about outside
our quarters did not matter under these conditions ;
but we scarcely dared to imagine what would have been
the effect in summer.

We sought, in vain, for interest or romance in the
surroundings of the sordid villages and mud-built cara-
vanserais, which staged our route along Southern
Dzungaria. All were stamped with the unrelieved
monotony of Central Asia.

On reaching the low plain of Dzungaria the road-side
scenery was varied by a zone of vegetation caused by
the presence of much water, which, at this altitude,
approached closely to the surface of the ground, and
either rendered it moist or actually appeared as streams.
This fact accounted for a string of villages lying along
the route.

Takianzi, the first of these settlements, was typical
of them all. A group of ancient elm-trees surrounding
a Chant o, or a Dungan mosque, is generally the most
prominent feature on approaching one of these villages,
which, on entrance, has the appearance of a long,
straggling street composed of mud-built houses, small
bazaars, and a few inns. In summer, life and colour are
added to the scene, nomads from the surrounding country
are haggling with the shopkeepers and crowding the serais ;
but in winter even the benumbed yet inquisitive inhabi-
tants have not the energy to turn out and form a crowd,
as is their habit on the arrival of strange travellers such
as ourselves.

The population was composed largely of Chanto
emigrants from the overcrowded oases of Chinese Turke-
stan, such as Turfan, Aksu, and Kashgar, in all of
which there exists a surplus of inhabitants. They had.

436 SOUTHERN DZUNGARIA

in many cases, been ousted from their homes by
the iniquitous methods of Chinese usurers, whose one
aim is to ruin the Chanto land-owners and so gain
possession of their wonderfully fertile farms. Here
the Chantos eke out a poor livelihood as small shop-
keepers and agriculturists, and, it was said, were freed
from taxation in return for settling on the Pei-lu, or
North Road/ Besides the Chantos there were always
Dungans and Chinese, who farmed small holdings, kept
the inns, and carried on a certain amount of trade.
The villages, indeed, presented a curious mixture of
races and creeds. It was instructive to notice that the
Chanto, Chinese, Dungan, and Kalmuk mixed freely and
even fraternised here, where all Asiatics are of one brother-
hood and the European is altogether outside the circle.
Religion seems to be of secondary consideration, when
it is a question of Europe versus Asia ; these being
far more distant from each other than are Buddhism,
Islam, and Agnosticism — as represented by the Mongols,
the Chantos and the Chinese.

Takianzi showed signs of recent increase, as proved by

1 These Chantos, however, do not make very good colonists. From
the day they arrive they are in the hands of Chinese money-lenders. Even
the grain necessary to sow their fields is borrowed, for each sack of which
they must return two, and in some cases three, in the autumn. It is
said that half the population of Kulja live by lending to the other
half. The Chinese settlers in Sin-Kiang are in many cases bad char-
acters who have emigrated by necessity and not by choice. They work
their way across the desert to Hami and other outlying oases, make
a Uttle money, and gradually move on westwards to Urumchi and Manas ;
but their goal is always the lU Valley. Some succeed, but many fail,
judging by the fact that only 20 per cent, manage to make enough
to return to their own country. In the far west they are a lazy lot com-
pared with what they are in China Proper, spending most of their time
in riotous living and gambling — chmate or lack of competition being pro-
bably the cause. In the Ih Valley a labourer gets as much pay in a month
as would satisfy him for a whole 3^ear in the home provinces.

FROM KULJA TO KUMUL 437

newly built houses and bazaars ; an exploration of the
surrounding country, however, showed that there were not
only large areas of an earlier cultivation now overgrown
with reed-beds, but the remains of many old irrigation
canals. For six or eight miles to the east of the village
I noticed disused canals and fields overgrown with reeds
and scrub showing no traces of recent cultivation. There
was ample water in this locality ; the present state of
the country being probably an example of what it must
have been formerly, before Dungan rebellions and Chinese
massacres swept away prosperity and left the land
destitute.

It was difficult, at this season, to tell the amount
of water these settlements were dependent upon, for the
streams were frozen and the water-courses hidden under
snow. Even the largest rivers, which issued from great
valleys in the mountains to the south, could hardly be
traced where we crossed their wide beds on the plain.
The villagers depended on deep wells, and the nomads
used ice, which they cut out, in great blocks, from the
rivers and transported on camel-back to their " yurts."

From Takianzi the road led us to Djinko, a town of
rather more than usual importance, situated at the
south end of Ebi Nor. It was a busy centre for the
Kalmuks from the Borotala district, and was inhabited
by about three thousand Chinese and Chant os, who
traded salt procured near Ebi Nor. Djinko was in a
well-watered region ; miles of reed-beds standing 10 to
15 ft. high, scrub, and small forests of gnarled and stunted
poplars showed that nearly all this country could be
brought under cultivation. As it was, the district only
supported a small population of Kalmuks, whom we
occasionally saw making use of the points of vantage

438 SOUTHERN DZUNGARIA

granted by the mounds which alone allowed a clear view
over the reed-beds. These circular mounds of earth were
a special feature of the landscape, and the appearance
of Kalmuk shepherds on their summits suggested to
me that they were probably constructed for the very
purpose of "spying," either for their flocks or on their
enemies.

Beyond Djinko we entered upon a heavy stage of our
journey, the track passing over the belt of sand-dunes
which lie to the south-east of Ebi Nor. The sand-hills,
of no great height, were irregularly formed, and were for
the most part covered on the leeward sides with small
tamarisk -scrub. There appeared to be very little move-
ment of sand by the wind, though at a Chinese guard-
house, called Kum Chaza, — where there were a few Kal-
muk soldiers who were supposed to look out for travellers
or caravans in distress, as often happens when the winds
are very high, — the sands were encroaching on the high
walls from the direction of Ebi Nor and the Dzungarian
Gate, whence come the strongest winds. These dunes
were high and free from vegetation. The ground — where
the sands left it exposed — seemed to be composed of
very fine lake-deposits, ploughed up into the finest dust,
thus making the going very heav}'.

The distribution of snow was very peculiar ; the
high, windy basin of Sairam Nor was deep in snow,
the country to the east of it was comparatively clear,
here again snow was lying, while the reed-beds and jungle
were altogether free. After leaving the sand-belt we
immediately entered a forest of poplars, which continued
— with small breaks — all the way to Shi-Kho. The
trees were evidently effected by the severe climatic
conditions and a none too abundant supply of water,

FROM KULJA TO KUMUL 439

for they presented a most weird appearance, with twisted,
gnarled trunks and branches, and dwarfed growth, few of
them being more than 20 ft. high.

Shi-Kho we found to be a thriving and busy centre
of trade and transport, with a " moving " population
of about three thousand. Even in January the four
big inns were full to overcrowding, for here converges
the entire trade between Siberia and Urumchi, and
constant traffic passes through. From Shi-Kho a road
runs northwards to the frontier town of Chuguchak,
which the traveller may reach in ten stages. It traverses
a bleak and inhospitable country, without habitation,
and with a poor water-supply ; in time, no doubt, it will
be superseded by another track following the line of the
Manas River, which, besides easing the discomfort of
the journey, will open up a country at present awaiting
development.

There being no inducement to halt at Shi-Kho, we
continued our journey for another stage eastwards to
the village of Yandzhikhai, where we stopped a day, as
Miller wished to hunt the surrounding country. The
exceptional conditions imposed by the rigid winter
on the fauna of these regions were shown by Miller's
discovery that, on the low hills to the south of the
road, wild-asses and wild-sheep actually ranged over
the same ground. These hills were scarcely a thousand
feet above the plain, and formed an isolated ridge separ-
ated from the main range of the Tian Shan, which started
some miles farther to the south.

Another two days took us to Manas, the centre of
an important district. As a town it did not impress
us, the bazaars being small, and the walled " city "
little else but an empty enclosure. The passer-by

440 SOUTHERN DZUNGARIA

might be easih^ misled as to the population and import-
ance of this region ; for Manas itself is merely the trade-
centre of a large agricultural district, the population
being scattered over the surrounding country in small
villages and isolated farms. This is the best and richest
farming country of the Pei-lu, for here is an unlimited
area of the finest soil extending along the banks of a
big river, at the point where it leaves its mountain-
gorge and spreads itself out in many channels over the
plain, thus rendering irrigation easy. The water-supply is
reliable ; even in the driest season there is a surplus of
water, which finds its way to the deserts below and
there evaporates. At the most critical season of the
year, when the crops most need water, the alpine
regions of the great ranges to the south send down
their melted snows in such abundance, that the river
assumes almost dangerous proportions. We could
scarcely believe that the mile-wide shingle-bed we
crossed just outside the town, — almost without realizing
that it was the bed of a river, — could later on be trans-
formed into a flood which would hinder traffic and
cut off communication for days together. Yet in July
and August the Manas River rises to this extent, and
passenger traffic is only kept up by the employment of
high-wheeled carts especialty built for the purpose.
These ferry travellers across the river so long as the water
does not run too deep for the horses to find the bottom ;
when this happens the blocked traffic causes the town of
Manas to become the centre of a busy scene, until the
flood lessens.

The Manas region forms an area suitable for develop-
ment in the future, but irrigation works on a large scale
are necessary. There is land and water, an equable

FROM KULJA TO KUMUL 441

climate, and a market for all produce close by. It is, even
now, the granary of Urumchi, and its cultivators have the
advantage of a large and ever-increasing population at
their very doors. Wheat, rice, and maize are a speci-
ality, while grapes and apples grow to perfection.

During our j ourney down the Manas River at the end
of the month of May, we found that cultivation extended
for about twenty miles along its right bank; beyond
that, the nature of the river-channel made irrigation
works impracticable, the river having carved out for
itself a deep bed in the soft clay and being bordered by
steep cliffs of 50 and 100 ft. in height. The bed of the
river was constantly changing, the cliffs being continu-
ally cut away ; in several places we found this had re-
sulted in the destruction of the irrigation-canals which
had been dug at immense cost and labour. We saw, too,
a place where the Chinese Government had endeavoured
to cut a canal which would carry water to lands 50 or
60 ft. above the level of water at its start ; but even this
had been left unfinished, and the farmers had set about
irrigating their lands on their own account by damming
the river at suitable places, so as to minimize the labour
of making long, deep canals, and leading the water
thence by comparatively small channels. We saw one
of these dams in the course of construction. It was
built entirely of bundles of willow-branches and straw,
and, it was said, was always destroyed beyond repair
by the summer floods and had to be rebuilt every year.
For a month or six weeks the entire village turned out
and built the dam, on which depended their harvest.

Thus, it will be seen that the real cultivated areas
on the east side of the Manas River come to an end
twenty miles to the north of the town, beyond this

442 SOUTHERN DZUNGARIA

point there being only small farms dependent upon
separate canals. On the west side there appears to be
more cultivation. Apparently the ground here was
easier to irrigate, for we discovered a very extensive
area of country, well watered, both by canals from the
Manas River and from other sources farther west. The
water-supply must be ample, as the main produce is
rice. Rice is being introduced more and more ; it is of
the best quality, and is in great demand. The natives
get a living so easily that they idle away most of the
time in gambling.

The whole of the lower Manas River, except where
hemmed in by sand-dunes or where running in a deep
ravine, is capable of being extensively used for irrigation
purposes. Truly Manas, itself, is well situated. As we
rode out on the road to Urumchi and saw its inspiring
background of snow-mountains rising to 20,000 ft., the
lands awaiting the hand of man, the fields already "laid
out," — lined with old irrigation-canals needing only to
be redug, we marvelled at the starving millions of
China who leave their own country for Australia and
America, when the}^ have this fertile land awaiting
them.

On leaving Manas the atmosphere became more alive,
and our impressions more interesting. We were now only
a few days' journey from the capital, as was shown,
even if we had not known it, by the increased amount
of traffic on the road. Many a monotonous day's
journey had been relieved by counting and tabulating
the traffic en route. For instance, between Kulja and
Shi-Kho we passed three hundred and fifty laden camels
going westwards and a hundred returning ''empty" to
Urumchi, but after leaving Manas we had our work

442]

DUXGAN BOYS.

FROM KULJA TO KUMUL 443

cut out to keep the record without a break. The first
day we passed seventy camels on their way to Manas
to fetch grain, six wagons of merchandise bound for
Kulja, and three average-sized caravans carrying cotton
and wool to Chuguchak. Farther on we counted twelve
wagons of grain going west and seventeen going east,
two camel-caravans of seventy and ninety camels each,
numberless foot-passengers — mostly colonists from the
home provinces, long strings of coal-carts bearing an-
thracite from the mines situated to the south of Manas,
besides two theatrical companies " on tour."

Although the country appeared to be busier and the
roads more full, the region between Manas and Urumchi
presented a spectacle of ruin. The destruction caused
by the disturbances of 1865-75 defies all description.
Ruined towns dotted the landscape ; we encountered only
two villages where the old maps marked five. For this
district was, and still is, the centre of Dungan coloniza-
tion, and it was here that the hand of the destroyer
worked with the most disastrous results. The traces of
earlier irrigation-canals were to be seen on lands now
lying idle. The country was, however, slowly recover-
ing, for small villages and farmsteads were springing up
alongside the road, and in time it may assume a more
normal aspect.

Immediately on leaving Manas we sighted the peaks
of the Bogdo-ola Mountains, which mark the position
of the capital. Our first view of this remarkable alpine
summit was that of a single ice-clad peak showing its
crest over a far horizon, but on reaching Urumchi we
found that it formed an imposing background to the city
lying close under its slopes.

Urumchi, Ulu-muchi, or Tihua-fu, the provincial

444 SOUTHERN DZUNGARIA

capital of Sin-Kiang, or the New Dominion, is situated in
the midst of attractive surroundings, in a bay in the
mountain-wall at the point where the Tian Shan dips be-
fore joining the Bogdo-ola. Tucked away close under the
mountains, in a sheltered locality, and with an ample
water-supply, it presents a pleasing aspect to the traveller
after the bleak and featureless deserts.

The position of Urumchi, although not practical
from a strategical point of view — being commanded by
the surrounding hills, is well chosen, for the capital is
situated in the heart of its administrative area, and also
at the junction of two great trans-continental trade-
routes, and of many local lines of communication. At
Urumchi the two main roads from China meet, namely,
the northern route across Mongolia and the southern
route through Lan-chow and Hami ; Urumchi is, also,
on the road to Hi, the most fertile and valued portion of
the New Dominion. As the capital of Dzungaria and
Chinese Turkestan, its position is admirable, being close to
the only point at which the great mountain-chain of the
Tian Shan drops low enough to permit the easy passage
of caravans between the two countries. The internal
trade, therefore, of these regions and all traffic between
Chinese Turkestan and the north must pass through
Urumchi.

Although only the recently named capital of a newly
incorporated province, Urumchi ^ has already grown to be
a town of size and importance. It forms the residence
of the Governor of the province, a Fan-tei and Nea-tei

^ Urumclii appears to be a corruption of the Mongol name Ulu-muchi.
Tihua, Tihua-fu, or Tih-hua-fu is the Chinese official name ; but the locals
always speak of the capital as Houng-miao-tze — " Red Temple," a name
which originated from the existence of a temple built on a red hill, close
by the town.

FROM KULJA TO KUMUL 445

(Provincial Judge), a Tartar General, and a considerable
garrison, some of whom have been drilled under Euro-
pean instruction and armed with modern weapons. The
population is said now to stand at 70,000 ; Bonin, in
1900, estimated it at 40,000 ; and in 1905 it was placed at
50,000. These figures show the advance Urumchi has
made during recent years. Of this number of inhabitants,
one quarter are said to be Chantos, some of whom are
Russian, and some Chinese subjects. Outside the walls
of the city there exists a quarter entirely composed of
Russian subjects, represented by Chantos or Sarts,
Tartars, and a few Siberian merchants, to advance whose
interests a paternal Government has placed a Consul-
General, a Vice-Consul, and a guard of fifty Cossacks.

Here alone does the traveller in the New Dominion
encounter a real Chinese town. Urumchi is typically
Chinese, its streets lack nothing of the atmosphere of a
town in China Proper. You may see the retinues of high
officials, and Chinese ladies in the latest Pekin fashions ;
you can buy Pekin goods — at three times the original cost,
and encounter men from every province in the Empire.
Urumchi is the centre of trade and fashion ; there are
several theatres, a gunpowder factory, an electric-light
plant ; and a far better choice of goods in the bazaars
than one could find in any other town in Central Asia.

An innovation, which has recently brought Urumchi
and Sin-Kiang into greater prominence and into closer
proximity to the outside world, is the wise employment
by the Chinese Government of Europeans to reconstruct
and manage the postal system. Mr. Petersen, to whom
this work had been entrusted, was our host whilst staying
at Urumchi, and we owe a great deal to his hospitality.
After two years' work he has organized a complete postal

446 SOUTHERN DZUNGARIA

system from this most out-of-the-way corner of China
to all points of the compass. Urumchi, by this new
system, is brought within forty-five days of Pekin, and
letters will reach London, via Siberia, within thirty
days. The local post is carried to Kulja, a distance of
430 miles, in four and a half days, and to Chuguchak
in the same length of time. In earlier days, under
Chinese management, the post took three times as long,
and even then safe delivery was uncertain. This is the
result of careful organization, by means of a sj'stematic
staging of the route into regular distances, and by the
enforcement of a time-limit. Well-mounted riders, in
relays, carry the mail-bags for stages of 80-90 li each ;
the service being kept up day and night across the
whole width of China. A combined, local, passenger and
mail service has been organized on this same principle
between the capital and Guchen, and the journey, which
formerly took from five to six days, is now accomplished
in a day and a half.

In spite of the distance from Pekin, caravans of mer-
chandise creep across from China to Urumchi, taking
eight months or a year on the road. These caravans
generally come direct by the northern route across Mon-
golia, for they carry wares especially for the Urumchi
market. The capital thus laid out, however, obliges the
merchants to charge at the rate of 200 to 300 per cent,
on the Pekin price. On the other hand, we bought
cigarettes of the " Aden Tobacco Co." at the rate of
3s. per hundred ; whether they were Japanese " fakes "
or not we cannot say, but they seemed uncommonly
good to us after a year's experience of all kinds of local
products — both Russian and Chinese. They were, in any
case, cheap enough, after being transported 1,500 miles

BACTRIAN CAMK]. IN M.M.MI.l^ CdAl

BACTRIAN CAMELS IN WIxNTER COAT.

446]

FROM KULJA TO KUMUL 447

by camel to a town where only a small demand could
be made for them.

At Urumchi we paid calls on Governors, Generals,
and Provincial Judges, and we enjoyed for a season
grotesque Chinese dinners and polite society, but our
desire was to move on, so we did not rest long. Some
days were occupied in arranging money matters, for,
although the Russian rouble has penetrated thus far
into Middle Asia, beyond Urumchi we found it necessary
to use Chinese coinage. We needed, however, money
which was current over the whole province, a local
coinage being useless to us ; so we carried paper-
money in i-tael notes, silver pieces of the same value,
and very bulky copper coins which filled a sack and
weighed seventy pounds, the exchange working out
at a loss of 30 per cent.

On February 12th we set off on the second stage of
eighteen days, following the northern road to Guchen.
We decided to go direct by the Guchen route to Kumul
instead of by the southern road, which passes through
Turf an, in order to confine our attentions, as far as possible,
to Dzungaria. In spite of the cold and the deep snow
the north road seemed to us the more worthy of traversing,
it being less known than the southern, or Turf an route.
From the point of view of time the two routes are about
the same during the winter months, the hindrances
caused by a heavy snowfall on the north being more
than counterbalanced by those resulting from the sand
on the southern road ; but in summer the Guchen route
is greatly to be recommended, the traveller thus avoiding
the excessively hot basin of Turf an. The difference in
the height of the passes over to the Nan-lu is of little
consequence, for, although the Guchen route leads over a
II— 9

448 SOUTHERN DZUNGARIA

6,000 ft. pass, and a pass of only 3,500 ft. lies between
Urumchi and Turfan, yet the higher pass is the more
easily approached from either side.

A misadventure during the first day's journey from
Urumchi, the loss of a tent-bale, which fell off the cart,
and was apparently stolen from the road before our
men could pick it up, as well as the attempt on the
morrow, made b}^ a member of our escort, to steal one
of our horses, showed that, even close to the capital, no
great amount ot law and order prevailed. In former
days this road was feared by Chinamen on account of
highwaymen and thieves, and even now it is customary
for foreign travellers to be provided with an escort of two
mounted men, road-guards, who are picketed at intervals
along the route, and are responsible for the safety of
travellers over their particular portion. The danger,
however, is more imaginary than real, owing to the prompt
action taken at the start by the Chinese officials. Their
method of dealing with the robbers was most effective,
for they immediately hamstrung those they caught.
The pickets are supplied from the Kalmuk reserves, or
the Chinese rabble, in accordance with the Chinese
principle that ** you do not turn good men into soldiers
any more than you make nails out of good iron."

Skirting close under the foot-hills of the massive
Bogdo-ola Range, across unbroken snow-fields, we passed
onwards to Guchen, which we reached in three days of
actual travelling from Urumchi.

Guchen, or Ku-ching — the ancient town — appeared to
be a large and busy place, which might be described as
the " port " of Urumchi, for it entirely owes its existence
to the position it holds as the terminus of all trans-
Gobi trade. Here, the overland trade from Kalgan and

FROM KULJA TO KUMUL 449

Kho-Kho-Koto,^ first finds rest after a continuous trek
— one long desert stage — of fifteen liundred miles. Here
the caravans, which outfitted at the " Blue " city on the
northern bend of the Hoang Ho, deposit their loads, and
wait until a sufficient quantity of goods has been collected
for transport eastwards ; the merchandise they bring
being here stored and sorted for further distribution by
fresh caravans, which work the transport of the regions
westwards of Guchen.

It is a far cry from the Pacific, or even from the
industrial centres of China, to Guchen, yet a sufficient
trade exists between them to call a regular caravan-
trade into existence and to employ a whole army of men
as transport-riders. Far Western China is, in fact,
in closer connexion with the European markets by way
of Chinese ports than she is bj^ way of Russia. Man-
chester goods compete with Russian wares in the bazaars
of Urumchi, and it is noteworthy that the goods coming
to Sin-Kiang from the east, i.e. from Pekin or the coast,
are distinguished by a name which signifies the " Best,"
as opposed to those which come from the west, or Russia ;
Urumchi merchants crack up their wares as coming from
the East. Mr. Hunter, of the China Inland Mission, who
has resided a long time in the capital, told me that he
thought more English goods reach Guchen via Pekin
than reach Kashgar via India. It might be supposed that
the cost of transport would be prohibitive ; the tariff
being, according to Petersen, 20 tael per 167 lb. A
camel carries about 500 lb. on such a journey ; the cost
would, therefore, run roughly at 60 tael or £6 los. per
camel-load ; but the Urumchi merchants charge quite

^ Ku-ku-koto, or Kou-kou-koto, also called Kwei-huaching, the start-
ing-place of the caravans.

450 SOUTHERN DZUNGARIA

enough to realize a handsome profit on all they sell.
The rate is rather high, for even on the easy road from
Guchen to Kulja the rate is 15 tael per camel-load, and
the distance is about one-third of the journey from
Pekin to Guchen.

Time, of course, is no object ; the caravans move at
the rate easiest for the camels ; they travel continuously
over the barren, fodderless region, stopping to feed and
to recuperate when they reach a locality with ample
food and water. Any time between six months and a year
may be occupied with the journey ; this depending on
the quantity of fodder the desert produces at the season
they make the passage, — if there is little food they move
more slowly, — and on whether they decide to take a
direct line from the Hoang Ho to Guchen or to call en route
at Uliassutai and Kobdo in Northern Mongolia. The
reason is obvious for using the trans-Mongolian route
for the transport of heavy goods. Large caravans can
find nourishment, no cost is entailed on account of food,
the track is level, crosses no mountain-ranges, is not
encumbered with other traffic, and does not pass through
towns where delay or expense can be incurred.

Chinese officials, when in haste to return to Pekin,
sometimes travel by this northern route in preference
to the southern. By using carts drawn by camels, they
can make the entire distance between Guchen and Kho-
Kho-Koto in fifty days. The discomfort of the desert
journey forbids all except those in great haste to take
this line, the eight months spent in loitering along the
southern road being much more after the heart of the
Celestial. It proves, however, that there is a good,
hard, direct route suitable for wheeled-traffic between
Sin-Kiang and the capital of the Empire, practicable

-"f^

^■p7

DZUNGARIA IN MID-WINTER.
Tne Basin of Sairam Nor.

»5o]

THE LEADKi: ol IHE CARAVAN.

FROM KULJA TO KUMUL 451

on account of the presence of food and water, and
which, m the event of an opening up of Northern
MongoHa, would become a well-used track.

The first part of the route is the same as that which
connects Urga with Pekin ; this part will shortly be
superseded by a railway. In Mid-Gobi, half-way to
Urga, the track branches off towards the north-west,
passes along the northern edge of the Gobi, and skirts
the lower and most easterly spurs of the Mongolian
Altai. Water, draining from these ranges, flows out and
eventually loses itself in the Gobi, and the caravans must
keep in touch with them. A more northerly line may
be taken, to include Uliassutai and Kobdo, in which case
ample fodder and water will be found ; but the crossing of
the eastern part of the Mongolian Altai necessitates an
ascent to 8,000 ft. above sea-level ; caravans, therefore,
more frequently take the direct route leading to Guchen.

Guchen is now the terminus, for it appears to have
superseded the town of Barkul, which lies a hundred and
seventy miles to the east, and was formerly the old
** port " for steppe-bound caravans. According to the
Russian maps, the trans-Gobi route leads from the
Southern Altai to Barkul and thence to Guchen ; there
is no signification on them of any track leading direct to
Guchen without touching at Barkul, yet this track exists,
and though for ten days' journey there are no habitations,
it is a well-worn road over hard steppe, and is staged by
guard-houses.

In winter, when food is scarce along the high-road
between Guchen and Barkul, and when snow forms a
water-supply on the desert to the north, the caravans
may well take a bee-line from Guchen to the southern
spurs of the Altai ; but in summer they must needs

452 SOUTHERN DZUNGARIA

go due north on leaving Guchen, until they pick up
the wells of the Baitik Range ; they then turn eastwards,
eventually joining the winter route near the Koko-
undur and Aji Bogdo Mountains.

In these days, caravans invariably take one of the
desert tracks and never include Barkul in their itinerary ;
yet we were told that they did so in the old days. It
has been said that this route was abandoned in con-
sequence of the Dungan riots, but I think a far more
likely theory as to the cause of this change is that Guchen
alone, at the present day, possesses a neighbourhood
suitable for the feeding of large herds of camels, during
their enforced stay in the vicinity of the town where they
deposit their loads, and where the freight for the return
journey is collected and made up. Barkul, for instance,
possesses excellent grazing in the near neighbourhood,
but the Barkul basin supports a Government stud of
horses, the grazing being thus monopolized by thousands
of horses. Urumchi, on the other hand, is surrounded by
cultivation, and there is no place for camel-herds. Guchen,
then, alone remains, and when approaching this town
in the month of May, on our urnetr from the steppes
to the north-east, we had reason to appreciate the
facilities afforded by that region as a resting-place for
the camel-caravans.

Here, at about twenty miles' distance from the town,
was a land covered with high grass, with plenty of water
at a depth of ten feet below the surface ; many wells had
been dug, and around each we found two or three en-
campments of caravaneers. Each was represented by
a blue or white canvas tent, the temporary home of the
caravan-bashi, or leader, around which were piled the
bales of merchandise ; we counted the signs of twenty

FROM KULJA TO KUMUL 453

separate " outfits," the whole country being dotted with
the camel-herds feeding vigorously on the excellent
grass. Here the caravans rest until they receive from
the agents in Guchen sufficient loads to enable them to
start back on the ret urn- journey. The caravans never
actually enter the town of Guchen, but remain outside,
where the bales are gradually collected until a caravan-
bashi has his full complement. Then the slow freight-
train starts on its journey eastwards.

The long, snaky, camel-caravan is such a feature
of the trade-routes of Asia and so large a number of men
gain a living by caravanning and occupy their whole
hves in moving to and fro across the heart of the con-
tinent with their charges — the camels, that this allu-
sion to camel-transport would be incomplete without
a description of a caravan on the march. We met
many of a prodigious size, slowly moving along the well-
worn routes, and all presenting much the same appear-
ance. The approach of a caravan was heralded by the
far-away sound of low-toned bells, wind-borne across
miles of desert, and mellowed by distance ; an hour might
easily elapse before any sign of it would appear.
First prowled the dogs — guards of the camp — of a breed
kept and highly valued as watch-dogs ; they were black,
shaggy animals of a sturdy build. All day they
roamed at will, but at night their duty was to watch
over the bales of merchandise ; after dark they became
uncommonly savage, and any one foolish enough to
approach an encampment on foot and unarmed would
be certain of a bad mauling. Even when on horseback,
it is often necessary to tuck one's legs well up to escape
their teeth. Following the dogs, at the head of a string of
camels, slouched a big Mongol, with hands behind his

454 SOUTHERN DZUNGARIA

back, eyes on the ground, and apparently with no thought
beyond his feet. He had slouched all his life, across
Asia and back again, and would probably continue to do
so until he could slouch no longer. He was clothed
almost entirely in sheepskins and felt ; even his trousers
were made of sheepskin — with the wool inside, and these
our interpreter persisted in calling " mutton-trousers."
These caravan-men are of a hardy breed, their faces
burnt to the colour and consistency of a walnut by
constant exposure to the fierce heat, biting cold, and
continuous winds of the Gobi. They have a character-
istic movement peculiar to their calling : the body is
bent slightly forward, and they drag their legs with an
effortless scrape at a pace which would kill an English-
man ; so slow, indeed, that they seem scarcely to move
their feet at all, and so dully and so hopelessly that it is
easy to understand why Asia has lagged behind in the
world's progress. It is nearly always possible to pick out
these men amongst the cosmopolitan crowd in a Central
Asia bazaar. The monotony of their lives would be hard
to exaggerate ; it consists of trudging at the head of a
string of camels for months over a barren country — desti-
tute of towns or habitation, with every feature of which
they must be thoroughly familiar. All they have to
look forward to is a short stay in the neighbourhood of
a town, while the bales are being collected for another
journey. The only occupation we saw them indulging
in was the spinning into coarse twine of the camels' -hair,
which they collected in the spring when the animals cast
their long, woolly winter-coats.

The work of the men, however, must be heavy, in
spite of their slowness on trek, for the entire caravan
has to be loaded and unloaded every twenty-four hours.

454]

BACTRIAX CAMliL.

FROM KULJA TO KUMUL 455

and the camels have to be taken out to graze in the
bitterly cold nights. There were generally twenty
camels to the charge of each man, an average caravan
being made up of a hundred and twenty camels, under
six cameleers and a caravan-bashi, who alone was
mounted and who rode at the rear, armed with an old
"blunder-buss."

After the leading cameleer came the camels, slow,
stately and cynical, twenty in a string — tied nose
to tail, and carrying full loads of 500 lb. The
heavily built Bactrian, — the weight-carrier, the freight-
train, — compares poorly with the fast dromedary — the
desert-express ; yet amongst all the various means of
transport used in Asia the Bactrian camel holds first
place. You may find him from China to the Caspian ;
you may safely depend upon him for the crossing
of a terrible sand-desert, and you may meet him at
18,000 ft. above the level of the sea, on a Himalayan pass.
He is ubiquitous, adaptable, and, in fact, indispensable
to the traveller and merchant in Asia. The Bactrian
camel is in his true home in Mongolia. The finest breeds,
according to Prjevalsky, come from the Ala Shan district
in the south ; but I am doubtful whether equally fine
types do not exist in the excellent pastures of the north-
west, on the slopes of the Mongolian Altai. Heavy loads
and short stages is the order for caravans bound for far-
distant regions ; and whenever food is found in ex-
ceptional quantity a halt of several days is often made,
in order to rest and feed up the camels.

I have diverged from my narrative, by describing
the ways and means of communication between Guchen
and the Far East, for it is the camels and the caravans
which are essentially the features of this town situated

456 SOUTHERN DZUNGARIA

on the edge of the desert. There was httle else of
interest to be noted, the town itself existing, for the
most part, as a sorting-house for goods in transit. Its
surroundings were exceptionally fine, with the illimitable
plains stretching to the north, east, and west, and with a
background composed of the giant peaks of the Bogdo-ola.
It was up to this point that the most recent traveller,
Professor Merzbacher, had carried on his systematic
exploration of the Tian Shan, but beyond this point
eastwards he had not worked ; here, therefore, I in-
tended to take up my surveying in order to continue it
to the furthermost limit of the Karlik Tagh, some three
hundred miles to the east. The season of the year,
and the deep snow, compelled us to put off any
idea we had of travelling in the mountains until a
much later date. We had to content ourselves with
the wonderful spectacle which this range — under fresh
snow — presented to us with a desert foreground of forty
miles ; we determined, therefore, to penetrate its upper
valleys and visit its sacred lake on our return to these
regions during the following summer.

In strange contrast to the snows on the south of
Guchen were the sands on the north. Since leaving
Urumchi we had noticed a long line of sand-dunes, running
parallel to our route on the north, at a distance of about
fifteen miles. These belonged to an outlying portion of
the great sand-belt of Central Dzungaria, which here
approaches to within a day's journey of the southern
border-ranges. The heart of Dzungaria had been crossed
by the Russian explorers Prjevalsky and Kozloff, but
we had little information as to the character of the
central plains or as to the type of sand-desert found
in their midst ; we knew nothing as to the extent of

FROM KULJA TO KUMUL 457

sedentary life and cultivation towards the north, nor
had we any knowledge of a nomadic population in
those regions.

We vaguely imagined those central deserts to be
untenanted by nomads, there being no indication of a
water-supply ; we had not counted, however, upon the
possibility of the existence of winter residents, depend-
ent upon snow for their drinking-water. In Guchen,
noticing many Kirghiz in the bazaars, we inquired who
they were, and they told us proudly that they were of
the Kirei clan, supplementing this information by adding^
that they were " Kum dan " — from the sands. This led
us to make further inquiries, and we eventually made
friends with their representative in the town. Each
different tribe or race in the cosmopolitan towns of Inner
Asia has a head-man to represent it and to look after
its interests in all matters ; the nomads of the sur-
rounding districts have also a similar figure-head whose
duties partake of those of a " consul." The " Shangea,"
or representative of the Kirei in Guchen, was a man of
wealth and importance, who showed us hospitality and
furthered our plans for a visit to the " sands."

On February 19th, in company with a Kirei, whom
we had to " mount," for the desert nature of inner Dzun-
garia does not allow the nomads to bring their horses
with them on their winter migrations, we rode out of
Guchen to the north-east, and in five hours reached the
edge of the sand-belt. Here was a guard-house called
Kuntiza, and here the track divided, one going north
across the sand to the Baitik Mountains and on to the
Irtish and the Altai, while the other followed along the
edge of the sands to the north-east. The former of these
was a level road, practicable for carts, with forage, fuel,

458 SOUTHERN DZUNGARIA

and water in sufficient quantity, and formed a regular
way of communication between the Irtish district and
Southern Dzungaria. We noticed that it was well used
by camels and carts carrying coal to Urumchi, from
some mines situated three stages from Guchen on the
road to the Baitik, the coal being found in great quantity,
near the surface, on the northern edge of the sands.

Between Guchen and the sands is an area of semi-
cultivated land. Many small streams, unfrozen even
at this season, flowed across the steppe and ended in
the sand-belt, beside which were situated a few scattered
farms and Chinese villages. None of these streams
flowed into the Olon Nor basin, to the north-west of
Guchen, but lost themselves in the sand. Irrigation-
canals and water-courses could be traced amongst the
outermost dunes, while the amount of vegetation and
trees on the sand-hills showed that water was close
under the surface. The sands seem to have encroached
on the cultivated area, for we found a few ruined
houses surrounded by sand-hills; this made us pay
rather more attention to the story told us by a Chanto
who had lived twenty-five years at Sin-tai, a small village
on the high-road near the south end of Olon Nor,
who said he knew of an old Kalmuk town called
Khopuza, to the north-east of the lake, which was buried
in sand

Trees existed only around the villages, and near the
water-courses ; the country as a whole was barren, form-
ing a pasture-land suitable only for the feeding of camel-
herds as described earlier in the chapter. The scattered
nature of the farms, which were all Chinese, showed
the difference in character between the Celestial and the
Chanto. Here were Chinese families living ten miles

TVI'L UF KIREl KIRGHIZ.

KIREI AND DROXCO.

458J

FROM KULJA TO KUMUL 459

away from their nearest neighbour, when apparently
there was ample room for them nearer the villages. Had
the colonists been of Chanto race they would have worked
together and formed small communities ; but the in-
dependent Chinese, possessing more initiative, started
ranches on their own account.

On entering the sand-belt we found that the dunes
were well covered with tamarisk and small saxaul ; as
far as the drainage extended were reeds and small
poplars in the hollows; the dunes lay across our
track, having been formed by south-westerly winds.
We rested at a solitary Kirghiz yurt that night, and the
next day passed over a similar country for several
hours, until reaching the northern edge of the sand-
belt. At this point the sands were about twelve miles
across, — in a direct line north and south ; farther east
the zone narrows down to three or four miles, and
then runs out in a wedge-shaped tongue until it ends
abruptly about thirty miles east of the Karaul Kuntiza ;
we noted at once that this sand-area was wrongly defined
on the existing maps.

On reaching the northern edge of the sand we entered
a dense forest of saxual ; travelling through this for
several hours towards the east, we reached a group
of ten yurts, one of many small encampments of Kirei,
snugly ensconced amongst the saxaul trees or in
hollows in the dunes. This was the home of our guide,
who in his of&cial capacity was " over fifty yurts,"
he being responsible for their good conduct and the
payment of their taxes. The people presented the usual
aspect of healthy, clean-living, well-to-do nomads of
Mussulman faith ; not fanatical, nor, on the other hand,
showing any desire to offer their services to travellers

46o SOUTHERN DZUNGARIA

unless tempted by the hope of a large reward, or unless
compelled to do so by order of a superior. They seldom
came in contact with the sedentary people, since the
whole extent of their territory touches on only two
settled localities — Guchen in the south, and Sharasume
in the north.

A description of the Kirei and their range has already
been given in Chapter XIT This branch of the clan
belonged rightly to the Baitik Mountains, and migrated
southwards only under stress of bad seasons. Accord-
ing to report, the last few winters had been exception-
ally severe, as was the case with the present winter, snow
lying deeper than had been seen for years ; consequently
the Kirei had come southwards in larger numbers, and
had even tried to establish themselves permanently on
the Bogdo-ola Range ; in this attempt they had been
frustrated by the Chinese. From this encampment I ex-
plored the sand-dunes, while Miller hunted the " kulon,"
or wild-ass, on the steppes to the north.

This sand-area was chiefly composed of small, station-
ary dunes, well covered with growth ; but on the eastern
edge it had thrown out a narrow tongue of high, moving
sand-hills. These hills, with their back, as it were, to the
stationary dunes, ran out eastwards until they faded
away to nothing. Immediately to their north, along the
edge of the sand-hills, was a zone of fine saxaul forest,
where the trees grew to a height of 20 ft. The forest did
not extend far on to the dunes, nor were the trees so well
developed there. Whether the existence of this heavy
growth had caused the gradual heaping up of the sand
to the south and south-west it is difficult to say for
certain ; the prevailing wind and the size of the dunes
suggest it, for, contrary to the observations of other

FROM KULJA TO KUMUL 461

travellers, I noticed that the dunes showed the prevalence
of a west, and not an east, wind. The moving dunes were
all steep-sided towards the east, and long-backed towards
the west, and during the three days we were on them
the wind came from the south-west or west. The early
mornings were often characterized by strong south winds,
which veered round to the west during the day.

Although the nature of the stationary dunes was the
same throughout, that of the moving sands varied con-
siderably. Some dunes presented the phenomena of
enclosed, crescent-shaped pits, the sandy hollows of
which lay 50 ft. below the average level of the sands.
There was rarely any trough between the lines of the
dunes, for the arms they had thrown out had joined up
with other dunes, and I was thus enabled to travel "up-
stream," as it were, or transversely to the lines of the
sand-hills, without any effort. It seemed to me that the
formation was often due to varying winds. I noticed
repeatedly that the hollows between the dunes had been
banked up by miniature dunes formed from the south ;
and on one occasion I found a high dune formed by
a south wind, situated on the top of an ordinary dune
formed by a west wind.

A considerable movement of sand was in progress —
for while the stationary dunes were snow-covered, these
moving dunes were practically bare ; a careful examina-
tion showing that the snow had been blown as the sand
was blown, and that in certain places where it had
collected were successive layers of snow and sand. On
the crest of some of the highest dunes were several
strata of snow and sand, showing how each fall of snow
had been covered up by a succeeding movement of sand.
The stationary dunes were all of an insignificant size.

462 SOUTHERN DZUNGARIA

and very malformed ; the moving sands were heaped
up to a greater height, — I estimate the highest dunes
at 100 ft. from crest to hollow, — these keeping their
ranks and preserving their form with the monotonous
precision peculiar to wind-blown sands.

Other information we acquired through this visit
to the Kirei related to the first spurs of the Altai Moun-
tains, which gave us some conception of the nature
of the gap of a hundred miles which separates these
mountain-systems, namely, the Altai and the Tian Shan,
as represented by the Baitik and Bogdo-ola ranges.
From our encampment, on a clear morning, we could just
discern the snows of the Baitik Mountains, an outlying
range belonging to the Altai group. This range, accord-
ing to the information given by the nomads who call it
their home, is an isolated mass, not actually reaching to
a summer snow-line, but sufficiently high to afford good
grazing ; water is found in small springs, rising in the
valleys, and flowing a short distance before drying up ;
the forests on the northern flanks consist of poplar
and alder in the valley bottoms, and larch on the
heights above. Taken altogether the description of the
home of these Kirei seemed most in\dting, and did not in
any way tally with the manner in which it was depicted
on the maps, as, lacking in names, in waterings, and in
everything that suggested an inhabited area.

The water-supply, the Kirei told us, is ample for
the nomads who live there during the dry est months, and
is even sufficient to support a small population of
Torgut-Kalm.uk residents, who never move as the Kirei
do. The Torguts live a semi-nomadic existence, growing
a httle barley, and grazing their flocks, but still occupy-
ing yurts in preference to houses ; they are sufficiently

FROM KULJA TO KUMUL 463

well off in flocks and herds, but are by no means on an
equality with the Kirei. We find, therefore, that the
plains which separate the Tian Shan from the Altai are,
at this point, composed of a hard, barren steppe, broken
by a narrow zone of sand-dunes ; on the south of this
is the agricultural district, while on the north lies a
partially used nomads' -land. The average altitude of
this section of the gap between the Bogdo-ola and
Baitik Mountains is 2,200 ft. above sea-level.

On our return to Guchen we engaged carts from a
Chanto owner and set off eastwards for Kumul. It being
now February 24th, the thaw had set in, and we
realized the time and trouble we had saved by ac-
complishing the greater part of our journey eastwards
in midwinter. East of Guchen the snow lay very
deep, and it was as much as the three horses could do
to drag the heavy Chinese carts up the long incline
to the Tou-shui plateau, across which lay the road to
Kumul.

On reaching the small town of Mu-li-kho, two stages
to the east of Guchen, we endeavoured to get some
knowledge of the mountain-region to our south by making
a lateral journey from the high road, and we actually
spent an entire day trying to get round an official who
refused to supply us with a guide, on account of his
being quite certain that we should succumb if we attempted
to travel in the mountains at this season, and that he
in consequence would be beheaded ! After a dinner
given in our honour, at which he consumed prodigious
quantities of Chinese spirit, he became sufficiently affable
to supply us, on our own responsibility, with two mounted
men as guides. Sending the carts along the high-road,
we rode southwards into the hills which lie within a short
II— 10

464 SOUTHERN DZUNGARIA

distance of Mu-li-kho; then, turning east, we traversed
the region between this point and Ta-shih-tu, following
a chain of farms which are to be found in the mouths of
the valleys some ten to fifteen miles to the south of the
road. Farther into the hills we could not go, owing to
deep snow and lack of inhabitants ; but even these
few daj^s on the foot-hills gave us a clearer insight into
the nature of the eastern Bogdo-ola and its varied in-
habitants, the region appearing to be a sort of Tom
Tiddler's ground.

A wide expanse of out-lying foot-hills shut off from
the high road the main Bogdo-ola and all signs
of existing habitation ; but, on crossing the first spurs,
pleasantly situated settlements and farmsteads came
into sight. We first visited Bain-kho, a small Chinese
village where we found a little cultivation, and later
in the same day we reached Borstan — a few scattered
farms belonging to Chantos and Chinese. The Chantos
were emigrants from Turf an ; but, as nobody would
emigrate of choice to this region in preference to a life
in Turf an, we asked an old Turfanlik what brought him
to these parts. The old man replied that he had lost his
land in Turfan through a Chinese money-lender, into whose
clutches he had fallen during a bad season. He bewailed
the fate of having to live in a country more or less
dependent upon rain, whereas in the Turfan there was a
constant supply of water from wells and kariz. Yet the
rainfall on this portion of the Bogdo-ola must be consider-
able, for the forest-zone continues in a broad belt along
the main ridge half a day's journey to the south. The
water-courses, however, had the appearance of being full
only at spring-flood. Ice formed the winter's water-supply,
in order to accumulate which the farmers led off water

FROM KULJA TO KUMUL 465

from their irrigation-canals and filled up any depression
that chanced to be handy, allowing the water to freeze
solid.

East of Borstan the main ridge of the Bogdo-ola sank
to a lower altitude and lost itself in a jumble of wild,
formless hills which stretched eastwards as far as the
eye could see. To have entered the hills at this season
would have greatly increased our difficulties, so, skirting
along under the foot-hills, we rested another night at the
house of a Chanto, or rather a Sart, for our host had
found his way hither from the Ferghana of Russian
Turkestan. Living a semi-nomadic existence in a yurt
during the summer, and in a house during the winter,
herding cattle and growing grain, our host was probabty
making a small fortune on which he would retire eventu-
ally to his own country. He had several advantages, for
being a Russian subject, he could not be turned out by
the Chinese, and, having taken a Kirghiz girl to wife, he
received much useful aid in matters relating to cattle
and sheep ranching, besides being thus placed on good
terms with the Kirei nomads.

Truly these ranges are inhabited by a nondescript lot
of people ; near to our host, who hailed from across the
Russo-Chinese border, was a settlement of discontents
from the kingdom of Kumul, — Kumuliks who had escaped
from the serfdom of their Khan, and who preferred a freer
if somewhat harder life in this region ; besides these were
occasional encampments of Kirei Kirghiz, wanderers
from the far north, already beginning to start on
their march back to their real home. No wonder
these nomads attempt to settle permanently on these
ranges, — ^forming, as they do, the most remarkable winter
resort for shepherds and their flocks, these rolling foot-

466 SOUTHERN DZUNGARIA

hills being free of snow at a season when the plains
below were deeply covered. This favourable district,
although scarcel}/ used at the present time, is capable of
supporting a far larger population. Its value in earlier
days is attested by the presence of many old tumuli, as well
as a few grave-mounds surrounded by upright stones.

On reaching the main road at Ta-shih-tu, and finding
that our carts had not yet arrived, we decided to spend
a few days in the neighbourhood, Miller hunting wild-
sheep, which were fairly numerous, while I mapped the
most important features of the plateau to our south.
The thaw, which had set in a few days previously, was
now increased by a strong, hot wind from the south, its
effect on the country being magical ; the roads became
quagmires, streams began to flow down the valleys, snow-
fields — ^previously hard enough to support the traveller —
now became serious obstacles, and the bare, frozen soil
changed into mud. We were not surprised, therefore,
when the carts turned up two days late, having taken
three and a half days to do two ordinary stages and
having lost one horse, which died on the road.

Ta-shih-tu consists of only a few houses, but the
name will often occur in these pages, there being no other
by which to identify this locality, where the northern
high-road turns to the south-east and crosses the water-
shed between Dzungaria and Chinese Turkestan, and
where a side-track leads onwards to Barkul. The
actual plateau which the high-road crosses, and which
is an important geographical feature, is also nameless ;
I shall, therefore, call it the Tou-shui plateau, from the
halting-place of that name on the southern side of the
watershed.

Ta-shih-tu stands at an altitude of 5,000 ft., and

FROM KULJA TO KUMUL 467

from this point the plateau rises in an easy incline to
its average altitude of 6,000 ft. ; the plateau is crowned
with a bewildering maze of isolated crests and summits
which form in themselves a wild turmoil of hill-country,
most difficult to map ; I found it hard to gain even a
broad idea of the essential features. Looking westwards,
a higher ridge showed where the first spurs of the Bogdo-
ola rose out of the plateau ; eastwards the jumble of hills
continued as far as eye could reach without any indica-
tion of the existence of the Barkul range.

To climb on to the watershed necessitated only a
rise of 1,000 ft., but the track was in so bad a condition
that the carts had to be taken up one at a time with the
aid of five horses. We crossed the watershed, — character-
ized by a broad, open, plateau-like summit, — and began
immediately to descend into a gorge surrounded by
rough hill-country of most amazing barrenness. The
whole of the next day we were passing through a winding
gorge between naked crags, remarkable for their tilted
and sometimes even perpendicular strata. Not a
tussock of grass, not a vestige of growth relieved the
blank landscape, which was composed of black shale
slopes, sterile ridges, and valleys choked with denuded
matter. In spite of the thaw we found only one tiny
spring of water. This sudden change of climate and of the
physical conditions was emphasized by the fact that w'e
were now beyond the snow-zone ; quite unexpectedly
we found ourselves surrounded by a landscape of intense
blackness instead of glistening white. During one day's
journey we passed out of Dzungaria into Chinese Turkestan,
and on entering the latter we immediately came across
an example of its most important characteristic, namely,
the gradual process of desiccation to which it is subjected,

468 SOUTHERN DZUNGARIA

and which stamps the entire region with an undeniable
character of its own.

The change was so sudden, so complete, that we did
not hesitate in forming an opinion that the desiccation
at work on the south side of the Tian Shan does not
extend into Dzungaria. B}^ a curious chance our
route at first led us into a small, self-contained basin, a
kind of miniature Turkestan, with its special features and
peculiar conditions reproduced for us on a miniature
scale.

This isolated basin, which I will call after the guard-
house and inn situated in its centre — Chi-ku-ching, lay
immediately below us as we left the gorge in the moun-
tains and entered the plain. It is a small basin ; its area
could be covered by that of Middlesex. On the north
it is bordered by the declivities of the Tou-shui plateau
— where a small amount of water drains into the basin
at certain seasons of the year ; on the south a semicircle
of low desert hills connect up with the northern wall and
render the basin complete. The road from Kumul to
Turfan crosses it from east to west, Chi-ku-ching forming
the junction of the Guchen road. The group of three
or four houses and the rather brackish water-supply
found at a depth of 20 ft. interested us little, the chief
feature of the basin being the unmistakable signs of
desiccation in actual progress.

The centre of the basin, at its lowest level, was covered
with tamarisk mounds. These mounds stood as high
as 20-25 ^^■> ^^d were perfect t3^pes of aeolian action —
cut away underneath by persistent winds, and increased
above by the deposition of blown sand, with a scanty
growth of tamarisk on the summit. According to Pro-
fessor Huntington's theory as to the approximate age of

■^*.1*

• » I • ■ • ■ /

FROM KULJA TO KUMUL 469

tamarisk mounds, these should fall under the category
of mounds of from 500 to 1,000 years old.

In addition to the tamarisk mounds was a forest of
stunted, unhealthy poplars with the dry stumps of many
dead trees, — another obvious proof of a deficient rainfall.
Many trees were already dead, others were giving up
the struggle, for the stamp of decay was on them, and
they were doomed to a slow and lingering death. In
comparison with the desert surroundings the forest
seemed out of place; it was as if the earth had
been blasted, and some of the vegetation alone had
managed to survive. Those that had succumbed stood
hke ghosts, their withered stems and twisted branches
preserved by the dry atmosphere. It was a depressing
scene, and we gloomily picked our way in and out amongst
the crooked, white-trunked giants which must once
have given welcome shade to the traveller.

The poplar forest, which had once covered the greater
part of the basin, was now restricted to the northern
edge, where there was still a small number of living
trees. The living poplars were small, of about 30 ft. in
height, with a meagre growth of branches at the summit
of a bare trunk; the dead stumps, however, showed an
immense girth, far surpassing any of the great poplars
of Russian Turkestan. The present condition of the
tamarisk mounds and the dead and dying forests of the
basin of Chi-ku-ching made us realize that no such factors
producing such devastating results were at work in
Dzungaria. We recalled the poplar forests near Manas
as being in a comparatively healthy condition ; we could
not remember even one tamarisk mound ; and when,
during our subsequent journeys in the following summer,
we reached the central plains and the hmit of the water-

470 SOUTHERN DZUNGARIA

flow from the mountain, we found that even in the
locaUties where the shghtest variation in rainfall would
make itself first felt, there were no indications of a
changing climate such as existed south of the Tian
Shan.

Leaving the basin, we entered a black, stony desert,
destitute of fodder and water, this sterility continuing
until the level dropped to 4,000 ft. We there entered
the zone of grass and water, villages and cultivation,
a pleasant land inhabited by Turki Mohammedans, or
Chantos, who appealed to us as more picturesque, of
greater historical interest, and certainly more enter-
taining than the nondescript population of Dzungaria.
Chinese Turkestan is a continent inside a continent ; it
is secluded, and barriered from the outside world, its
inhabitants having been moulded into a peculiar people
by their unique physical surroundings.

As we passed eastwards and water became more
abundant, pretty mud-built villages staged our route.
These were surrounded by orchards irrigated by rivulets
of clearest water ; there were picturesque mosques
standing on sacred ground, half hidden by gigantic elm-
trees ; and we heard once again the mellow voices of
the Mullahs calling the faithful to prayer. All this was
delightful after the restless atmosphere of Dzungaria.
We were treated here as honoured guests, and the dark-
eyed Chantos, with the hospitality for which they are
famed, entertained us as travellers in a strange land.
Beyond our immediate surroundings our view was en-
hanced by the wide panorama of the Barkul Range,
which, emerging out of the Tou-shui plateau, now ran
parallel with our route on the north, the snow-clad
summits and forested flanks forming a pleasant con-

FROM KULJA TO KUMUL 471

trast to the dusty plains across which our carts now
plied their way, and giving rest to the eyes from the
aching yet fascinating deserts which, in long, flat sweeps,
broken by occasional escarpments, extend southwards
into the unknown.

There were many, indeed, far too many, matters to
occupy our thoughts, and to stimulate our ambitions
as we drew near to our goal. In a wayside village we
found the tomb of some long-dead Chanto, decorated, as
is the custom, with the horns of wild-game, such as wapiti,
ibex, and wild-sheep ; the proportions of some of these
horns gave Miller hopes of finding ampler and hitherto
unknown hunting-grounds in the ranges to the north. A
few days later, too, when the highest summits of the
Karlik Tagh hove into view, and I drew the first lines
across my plane-table on to its virgin peaks, we felt a
considerable satisfaction in having accomplished the long
winter journey of 800 miles, and we pressed forward
eagerly towards the dark line of vegetation that shim-
mered in the dusty desert ahead of us and indicated the
position of Kumul.

CHAPTER XVI

KAMI, OR KUMUL

" Camul is a province which in former days was a king-
dom. It contains numerous towns and villages, but the
chief city bears the name of Camul. The province lies
between the two deserts ; for on the one side is the great
desert of Lop, and on the other side is a small desert of
three days' j ourney in extent. The people are all idolaters,
and have a peculiar language. They live by the fruits
of the earth, which they have in plenty and dispose of
to travellers. They are a people who take things very
easily, for they mind nothing but playing and singing,
and dancing, and enjoying themselves. And it is the
truth that, if a foreigner comes to the house of one of
these people to lodge, the host is delighted. ..."

Thus Marco Polo — the great Venetian traveller — some
600 years ago, briefly described Camul, or Kumul,* the
Hami of the Chinese. Although it is certain that he
himself never visited the locality and that his information
was gathered from hearsay, or, as Yule suggests, from
the personal experiences of his father and uncle, who
may have passed through Kumul, yet our descriptions
will show the accuracy with which Marco Polo's account
tallies with the Kumul of the present day. It is true

^ Kumul appears in a variety of forms. According to Yule (Travels
uj Marco Polo, p. 211) Kamul is the Turki form of the Mongol name
]<hamil ; it is also spelt Komul, while Khami, or Hami, is the Chinese
form of the word. The inhabitants are called Kumuliks.

47a

HAMI, OR KUMUL 473

that there are certain marked differences, the cause
of which can easily be traced to radical changes in the
lives of the people, but on the whole the people are
the same ; they remain as an interesting proof of the
stagnating effect of living in the far-away and secluded
desert-basins of Central Asia.

Kumul is still the capital of this same little Khanate
*' which was once a kingdom " and which is, in fact,
an independent native state — tributary to China, under
the direct rule of an hereditary Khan, or Prince. Re-
membering, therefore, Marco Polo's remarks about the
hospitality of the inhabitants, and knowing that Kumul
was sufficiently far away from the " world " to have
avoided contamination, we despatched a rider ahead, with
orders to deliver our visiting-cards to the Khan. On
approaching the first trees of the oasis we found a mes-
senger awaiting our arrival who took us in charge and
led us to a house especially prepared for our recep-
tion. These quarters were situated outside the walls
of the town, overlooking the oasis, and with an un-
interrupted view of the snow-miountains to the north ;
a large walled fruit-garden surrounding the house added
to its sense of comfort.

On arrival, we found a whole retinue of men await-
ing our orders ; these unpacked the carts as we sat on the
carpeted divan at the end of a cool and exquisitely
clean room, drinking green tea brought by the head-
servant who had been told off by the Khan to attend to
our wants. Other retainers ran to fetch food, fuel, and
water ; but before these returned another batch of
messengers arrived, bearing the cards of the Khan with
inquiries as to the success of our journey and to our
comfort ; these messengers brought cart-loads of coal

474 KAMI, OR KUMUL

and firewood, food for the horses, and two sheep for
ourselves. Obviously Marco Polo had not exaggerated
the inborn hospitality of the people of Kumul ; and, as
will be noted in the following pages, the oasis, though
situated on the main road between North China and
Western Asia, still lives up to its former reputation,
and remains unspoilt by over-taxation or misuse of its
good- will.

In these delightful surroundings we rested a week,
making the acquaintance of the feudal chief of this
curious little kingdom on the edge of the Gobi, who
showed us much hospitality and courtesy ; and here we
prepared a plan for the exploration of the Karlik Tagh
Mountains, which comprise in themselves the greater
portion of the Khan's territory.

Marco Polo called Kumul " a city," and gave the im-
pression of the existence of many other towns and villages
in the neighbourhood ; but, at the present day, Kumul
is the only town that remains, and the capital itself
can hardly claim to rank as a city. Kumul is not large,
and its surrounding oasis covers a relatively small area ;
it is so small, indeed, that in other parts of Chinese
Turkestan Kumul would pass unnoticed. The geo-
graphical position of this oasis is alone responsible for its
boasted importance, for Kumul owes its prosperity
entirety to its location as the last town in Chinese Turke-
stan for desert-bound caravans, and as the first resting-
place for travellers and for traffic coming from China.
Beyond Kumul all is desert ; whether the caravans come
or whether the caravans go, this town is to them of
immense importance ; it represents either a goal safely
reached after a hard and trying journey of eighteen days
from An-hsi-chow on the southern side of the intervening

THE WALLS OF KUMUL.

474]

THE KHAN'S RESIDENCE.

KAMI, OR KUMUL 475

Gobi, or it partakes of the nature of a " taking-off "
place where travellers outfit before entering on this same
food-less and uninhabited stage.

When weary travellers from Cathay sight the cool
snows of the Karlik Tagh they know their toils are at an
end. The peaks which lift themselves from the central
mass and are the culminating points of this insular
mountain-group are also a landmark to wanderers
on the plains below, and towards them converge the
ancient trade-routes connecting China and Mongolia with
Western Asia. Mongol nomads of the nameless region
to the east and north " pick up " these snowy beacons
from across the plains, and recognize that they form
the boundary-point of their territory — the end of the
pasture-zone. As a lighthouse on some far-flung pro-
montory, guiding ships from across the ocean, so the
snows of the Karlik Tagh shine as a guide to the
caravans that cross the Gobi ; and under their shadow
lies the safe port of Kumul.

Those who have come hither for the first time wonder
at the native inhabitants, with their Aryan features
and strange garb ; at the quaint, mud-built town and
" covered " bazaars. Everywhere are new impressions,
sights, sounds, and above all a new religion, for Kumul is
the eastern outpost of the Turki-Mohammedan world, —
all unite to prove to the newly arrived traveller from China
that he has reached a foreign land, Chinese only in name.

Kumul introduces the traveller to Turkestan ; it is
the first Chanto oasis on the Nan-lu, or southern high-road.
Westwards the Mohammedans hold all the fertile centres
that encircle the desert heart of Turkestan, but in any
other direction beyond the territory of the Khan extend
unsettled steppes, the domain of Mongol chieftains and

476 KAMI, OR KUMUL

Kirghiz shepherds. Karlik Tagh might be described as
the meeting-place of three great territorial divisions,
Mongolia, Dzungaria, and Turkestan. For, in point of
fact, the territory of the Khan actually touches on all
these countries.

This unpretentious oasis has taken an important share
in the affairs of Inner Asia owing to its unrivalled position,
and for this same reason it has experienced a long and
chequered career.

In the early days, between the ninth and twelfth
centuries, Kumul formed a part of the Uigur dominion,
and it is probable that the first cultivators, and, indeed,
the actual creators of the oasis, were the ancient Uigurs,
who, coming in this direction when driven out from
Mongolia, made large settlements on both flanks of the
Tian Shan in the neighbourhood of the present-day
Urumchi and Turf an. In the Kumiuliks we may see the
remnant of that ancient race whose migrations, and success
as agriculturists, have so materially altered this part of Asia.

During the Mongol supremacy the oasis fell to the
portion left by Jenghis Khan to his son Chagatai ; but
there was small mention of Kumul in those days, for it
lay to the south of the pasture-zone which formed the
main resort of the Mongol hosts. Later, during the
period that China held no very strong hold over her
far-western dependencies, Dzungaria and Turkestan being
in constant revolt, Kumul was more in evidence, for she
was frequently in trouble and constantly changing her
suzerain. Kumul formed the base of Chinese military
operations not only during the crushing of the Dzungar
Empire and the Dungan insurrection, but during the
suppression of Yakub Beg.

Kumul is the key to Dzungaria, and is therefore of

KAMI, OR KUMUL 477

immense strategical importance. Its resources must
have been taxed to the utmost when vast and ponderous
Chinese armies, after crossing the foodless Gobi, suddenly
poured into the town. The oasis itself suffered mucli
during the Dungan rebellions, for Turki and Chinese
Mohammedans fell out amongst themselves ; Piassetsky,
who visited Kumul in 1875, spoke of the town as being
in ruins and used only as an encampment for Chinese
soldiers. It is surprising to find this same town in such
a flourishing condition as it is at the present day.

The Khans of this little kingdom have been wise
enough to recognize the suzerainty of China, and for the
last two hundred years, by careful diplomac3^ the ruling
chiefs have steered a clear course through the intrigues
and entanglements that beset the heads of outlying
native states in Central Asia ; consequently the in-
dividuality of the oasis has been preserved intact.

The most interesting side of Kumul is its status as
a convert to Islam from Buddhism. In the days of the
Uigurs the whole of this region belonged to the Buddhist
world ; even up to the fourteenth century, when Marco
Polo wrote of them, the Kumuliks were still " idolaters,"
or Buddhists. Signs of the prevalence of Buddhism are
still to be found around Kumul in the presence of many
shrines and temples such as those excavated at Togucha
(to the west) by Prof. Grunwedel, and such as the remains
of images and colossal seated Buddhas of which Stein
was the first to record the existence at Ara-tam, a small
oasis to the north-east of Kumul, which has always been
the summer resort of the Khans.

In the middle of the fifteenth century it is evident
that the two faiths were striving for the mastery, for
there is record of a mosque and a great Buddhist temple

478 KAMI. OR KUMUL

standing side by side. Kumul is now, however, a verit-
able stronghold of Islam, and its inhabitants keep more
strictly to the law than do the greater number of
followers of the Prophet.

At the present day Kumul consists of a native Chanto *
town, surrounded by high mud-walls and dominated by
a great mud-palace — the residence of the Khan ; to
the north-east is a walled Chinese town, containing
yamens, quarters for the garrison, and bazaars, where
most of the business is transacted. The population
of the capital is probably about ten thousand, the
native Kumuliks being in a slightly greater majority
than the Chinese, the Dungans, and the garrison com-
bined. It is probable that in recent years the Chinese
element has increased, represented, as it is, chiefly by
traders and small shopkeepers ; but the Chanto farmers
cannot have increased much, owing to all available land
being already under cultivation. Any further increase
would undoubtedly cause either discontent or a desire to
emigrate.

Around the town lies the oasis, a veritable Garden
of Eden in the midst of a howling wilderness. The
inhabited zone of cultivation is very small, extending
only for about seven miles north and south, and five
miles east and west ; but such is the richness of the
soil, and with such care is the ground terraced and
watered, that it supports a considerable population in
proportion to its size. Kumul lies in the midst of a
salt-encrusted plain, and its existence depends upon
the drainage from the highlands of the Karlik Tagh
lying some fifty miles away. The water which drains
southwards from these ranges is for the most part lost

^ See footnote, p. 397.

478]

A STREET SCENE IN THE CHINESE QUARTER.

KAMI, OR KUMUL 479

below the surface of the ground after leaving the moun-
tains. The torrents sink below the surface in the pied-
mont gravel slopes at the foot of the hills, but appear
again twenty miles out on the plain in the form of
copious springs, which ooze up and form the irrigation-
supply of the oasis.

No existing map gives a true idea of the hydrography
of this region. Rivers, intimated by continuous blue
lines, flowing out into the waste where they form lakes
(called Kul), are common errors on the maps. As a
matter of fact, the water which escapes being used for
irrigating purposes generally disappears below the sur-
face of the ground ; though in a few cases, when there
is a sufficient supply from the mountains, it may re-
appear again in some depression far out in the desert
in the form of small saline springs.

The Narin River, for instance, the main source of the
water-supply that feeds Kumul, disappears into the
ground a couple of miles from the point where it leaves
the rugged sandstone foot-hills of the Karlik Tagh ;
eighteen miles farther on, five large springs appear in what
was once its river-bed. This water is used for irrigating
the oasis .^ Twenty miles below the town the water is too

* Although these springs are the main irrigation-supply, they are
not the only ones. The eastern half of the oasis we found to be dependent
upon small springs, of the same type, which originated from the drainage
of the Edira Valley, the next valley eastwards of the Narin. Apart from
these, all the cultivation at the north-east of the oasis, which extends
for some four or five miles, rehes upon a water-supply obtained from melting
snows or rain in the mountains, arriving by way of the Edira Valley, or
by the canal, which has been led with great labour for some twelve miles
across the plain, from close below Toruk, where it catches the surplus
of the spring and summer floods. FaiUng this supply, the crops would be
ruined. " Kariz," or subterranean canals, as employed in other parts
of Turkestan and Persia, only existed in a ruined state to the west of
Togucha.

II — II

48o HAMI, OR KUMUL

salt for irrigation. Beyond this point there is no continu-
ous flow, the drainage is spasmodic, regulated by the
supply from the mountains. In summer, when the snows
melt in the highlands, there may be a flow of water above
ground to the lakes of Shona Nor, which the Russian
maps mark as forming the terminus of the river of Kumul.
This would be, however, for a very short period only,
and I think it probable that these "lakes " are in reality
only marshy ground containing a few stagnant pools,
formed by the residue of the drainage oozing up at this
level, — which is the " water-table."

These imaginary lakes have crept into the maps and
are religiously copied from edition to edition, no one
having visited them since the time of the early Russian
explorers who located them, in most cases, by hearsay.
Thus, the illusive problem of Lake Toll, — that mysterious
patch of blue in the desert to the south of Kumul, —
had long attracted my attention and made me desirous
of solving its mystery. Lake Toli remains unvisited,
but from information I gathered at Kumul I am in a
position to give a satisfactory explanation of its character ;
and its existence, in a somewhat modified form, may
safely be accepted.

The Kumuliks have a somewhat unusual rendering
for the Turki words relating to water, signifying
springs, lakes, rivers, etc.; the meaning they attach
to the ordinary Turki words for these being, in some
degree, responsible for the supposition that Toli was a
lake. They give a very exact interpretation of such
words as " daria," " bulak," and " kul." For instance,
a river is only a " daria " for a short time in early
summer, when the channel is full ; they speak only of
" daria " when the melted snows from the mountains

HAMI, OR KUMUL 481

send a stream in high flood across the plains. The
remainder of the year the water-supply is called " bulak,"
meaning springs. All ordinary watercourses on the
plains around Karlik Tagh, even good-sized streams
used for irrigation purposes, are called " bulak," because
they originate from springs, and do not come continuously
from the snows. Now, a large group of strong springs,
such as is often found issuing out of old river-beds at
a distance of about fifteen to twenty miles from the
mountains, or in the depressions still farther away on
the desert, are invariably called " kul," a word like the
Mongol " nor," generally used to denote a lake or large
sheet of water, but here used to describe a spring-head or
a terminal marsh which may, or may not, form an area
of standing water. Iti Kul near Togucha, Shona Nor
at the end of the river of Kumul, and Toli Kul in the
desert to the south, are examples of Kumulik nomen-
clature.

All these are localities of the same character, namely,
water-tables where the land-surface drops to the level
which permits water to appear above the surface. I
believe that the use of the word " kul " caused early
explorers to locate lakes, by hearsay, in a region where
merely springs exist. It is not too much to suppose
that Toli Kul is in reality a depression, in which, if
there were sufficient water, there would be a lake. The
water is never sufficient in itself to form a lake, as only a
meagre supply issues from underground, this being the
residue of occasional drainage from the higher land to
the north and east ; nevertheless, according to the
Kumulik idea, it is a " kul." No doubt, in former days,
when the climate was damper, a lake existed. For
the same reason that the lake has disappeared, the

482 HAMI, OR KUMUL

old route which led thence from Kumul, across what is
now the most inhospitable desert, and joined the great
trade-route that ran between Su-chow and Lop Nor,
has also sunk into disuse.

This peculiar subterranean system of drainage creates
areas of luxuriant cultivation in marked contrast to the
barren stony plains surrounding them. The fruits of
the earth are so abundant that, as Marco Polo remarks,
the inhabitants have even sufficient to dispose of to
travellers. The fame of the oasis for rice, melons, and
grapes has already spread to China. The melons are
a speciality of the Kumulik cultivators, the preserved
skin being exported in large quantities, and actually
forming a part of the tribute sent to the Court at Pekin.
Wheat, barley, and oats occupy the larger area and form
the staple supply ; while the influence of the Chinese is
shown in the neat little vegetable patches close to the
walls of the town.

The chief interest lay, however, in the people them-
selves— both the townsfolk and the cultivators — for the
strange mixture of race and religion, of Turki and Chinese,
of Islam and Buddhism, has given rise to many pecu-
liarities, and laid the foundation of many unusual
characteristics. The position the oasis holds on the
outskirts of the Moslem world, and as the last of the
Chanto settlements of Turkestan, renders it liable to
invasion by foreign customs. As a result the inhabitants,
although of pure-blooded Turki descent, have been so
influenced by Chinese elements during the last two
hundred years as to make them adopt the same dress,
speak the same language, and in many cases even eat
the same food. The Kumuliks, indeed, are a people
undergoing a rapid process of assimilation by the

A KUMULIK GIRL.

482]

KAMI, OR KUMUL 483

Chinese, and were it not for the determination of their
Khan to preserve their " nationality " (in order, no
doubt, to preserve his chieftainship), his subjects would
already have lost their individuality, and, perhaps,
have broken away from his rule.

In a great many cases the men wore a strange mixture
of Chinese and Chanto dress, replacing the Chanto
" khalat " by a Chinese coat, but always retaining the
typical Turkish skull-cap as head-gear, this being worn
in winter without, and in summer with, a turban. Some-
times complete Chinese costume was worn ; this was
especially noticed at the Court of the Khan, in defer-
ence no doubt to Chinese officialdom ; and in these
cases the '* get-up " was duplicated even to a mock-
pigtail. The women-folk on the other hand, had not
taken so readily to Chinese ways, for, although they
copied the Chinese custom of painting their faces, and
occasionally donned coats of gaudily coloured Chinese
silks in preference to their own more picturesque
" chapans," this was chiefly the case in the town of
Kumul and amongst the more wealthy class. In the
mountains and outlying oases the Chinese influence had
not affected them.

The women did not veil their faces, but guarded
their good looks from strange eyes with equal success by
the judicious use of their coat-tails. The excessive
shyness of the ladies of Kumul appeared strange to us
after the easy manners of the Mongols and the Kirghiz
and even of the Chanto emigrants in Dzungaria. In
Kumul it was almost impossible to catch a glimpse of a
woman in the streets. They were as shy as rabbits, and
dived into their houses when they saw us approaching,
and even locked the doors until we were well past ! It

484 KAMI, OR KUMUL

was obvious that the reputation which Kumul possessed
in the days of Marco Polo had been entirely changed ;
this change cannot have been the result of their conversion
to Islam, and can only have taken place in recent years,
for Prjevalsky, who visited the oasis in 1879, said that
" the women were free and easy in their manners, just
as they were in Marco Polo's time." Now, however,
morality is a feature — a strange paradox indeed, a moral
town in Chinese Turkestan ; a profound contrast to olden
days, in order to produce which some very strong cause
must have been at work.

As Chinese influence is responsible for the mixture

of customs which the Kumuliks now exhibit, so is it

indirectly the cause of their morality and good behaviour.

Formerly the rapid advance of the Chinese element was

viewed by the Khan with apprehension ; he foresaw the

degeneration of his people into a mongrel type — half

Chinese, half Chanto, and, as a good Mussulman, fearing

the effects that might follow, he determined to keep his

subjects so closely to their religious principles that they

could not slip away from Islam. The Khan, no doubt,

also suspected the possibility of discontent amongst his

subjects, and perhaps even a desire for freedom from

his rule ; eager, therefore, to keep his people from being

contaminated by the Chinese, realizing that he might

lose his hold over them, he strictly enforced the tenets

of the Mussulman faith. The fact of this very small

but extremely strict Mussulman community situated at

the very end of the Islamic world and completely under

Chinese influence is, indeed, a paradox. Herein lies

the chief peculiarity of Kumul. It is cut off from any

other strongholds of Islam, and lies outside their sphere

of influence, few Mohammedans pass through it, and its

RAMI, OR KUMUL 485

inhabitants are environed by Buddhists and Chinese
possessing no definite faith. Moreover, it has been so
greatly influenced by Chinese elements during the last
two hundred years that it has adopted many Chinese
customs and even Chinese dress. Yet, in spite of
this, or perhaps because of this, the Kumuliks represent
a type of Mohammedan people hard to beat for strict-
ness of conduct, and exact upholding of the letter of
the law.

The position which Kumul holds in this respect is
entirely due to the strength of character of the Khan
and his ability in enforcing a form of narrow Puritanism
which prevents the Kumuliks from breaking away, and
makes religious principle the foundation of their good
behaviour. The Khan sets an example, which is followed
by his retainers and copied by the people. Men have
to pray at the mosque, whether they like to or not, and
for those who offend large whips are kept, hung up in
the courtyard of the castle, and, according to report, are
used without mercy. The drinking of spirits is forbidden,
and all Moslem laws as regards the seclusion of women
are carried out without relaxation. Such are the
reasons for the one great change in the customs of the
Kumuliks which has taken place in recent years.

This tyranny has had an irritating effect on the
inhabitants, who seem to suffer from over-legislation.
They have no longer time or opportunity for ** play-
ing and singing and dancing and enjoying themselves,"
as in Marco Polo's day, although, no doubt, the desire
for amusement is as strong as it is amongst other
Chantos. Their status is that of serfs under a feudal
lord, who owns the best lands, the largest flocks and
herds, who employs forced labour, levies a consider-

486 KAMI. OR KUMUL

able tax, and even takes upon himself the responsi-
bility of posing as their spiritual leader. Even in this
out-of-the-way corner of the world there existed a strong
desire for freedom from an autocratic rule ; we noticed
a general feeling of discontent amongst the Khan's
subjects, who appeared eager to come directly under
Chinese rule. Up to the present the KumuHks have
possessed neither the initiative nor the enterprise to take
a decided step in any direction ; the man who has
" ideas " is immediately exiled, we met many such in
the outlying villages of the far corners of the Khan's
dominion. We found, too, that the hunters had been
deprived of their guns, these being forfeited on account
of an attempted rebellion the year before.

The discontents endeavoured to emigrate ; this move
had to be carried out secretly and with a loss of their
possessions, for it was considered the worst of all crimes
to desire to leave the fatherly rule of the Moslem Khan
and to dwell in a heathen land. If Kumul were situated
nearer the Russian frontier, she would no doubt seek
Russian protection and thereby escape from the harsh
rule of the Chief.

In addition to Kumul there are several small oases
on the plains, — Taranchi, Togucha, Astine, Lapchuk,
Toruk, Ta-shar, Khotun-tam, Karmukchi, Tashbulak,
Bai, Adak, Nom, — besides others hamlets composed of a
few farmsteads, but hardly worthy of the name of village.
These are all subject to the Khan ; but the main
bulk of the population who owe allegiance to him, —
outside the town of Kumul, — is made up of Taghliks,
or mountaineers, who live in small villages tucked away
amongst the rugged valleys of the Karlik Tagh ; here
they are left in greater seclusion, but pay their taxes in

KUMULIK MUSICIANS.

A TAGHLIK OF KARLIK TAGH.

486]

KAMI, OR KUMU 487

grain, kine, or labour to their overlord at Kumul. We
have knowledge of no less than thirty villages and
groups of farm-houses belonging to the Khan, twenty
in the plain and ten in the high mountain valleys,
all of these being inhabited by agriculturists. On the
northern slopes of the mountains only, where grassy
plateaux replace the steep-sided, rocky ridges of the
southern side, are people to be found who might be
described as nomadic shepherds; even these are in
reality merely Taghliks who live a semi-nomadic exist-
ence in more or less permanently pitched tents, tending
the flocks and herds.

Over these ruled Mahsud Shah, hereditary Prince of
the Khanate of Kumul and eighth of his line, bearing the
complimentary Chinese title of Tsing Wang, or Prince of
the First Rank. Kumul remained as an example of that
system whereby the Chinese were enabled to leave the
affairs of the western dependencies in the hands of local
chiefs, the status being that of a protected native state.
The Khan had absolute power over his subjects, except
in the exercise of the death-penalty ; in such a case the
sentence imposed by the Khan had to be sanctioned by
the Chinese " political agent " in residence at Kumul,
who managed the affairs of the Chinese colony, and
acted as adviser to the Khan in matters of any im-
portance.

The Khan treated us with much kindness and honour.
The British, he said, were friends of Islam, and he was
glad to meet them. He knew of Hindustan, and, as a
Mussulman under Chinese suzerainty, he appreciated
foreign rulers who showed respect for the religion of their
subjects. During our stay in Kumul and our journeys
throughout his dominions we experienced such whole-

488 HAMI, OR KUMUL

hearted hospitality and such genuine good-will from this
Eastern Prince, that no written words can sufficiently
convey our appreciation. After the first short com-
plimentary visits which he paid us, and which we returned,
the Khan invited us to dinner, and the five hours spent
in his company in his palace gave us a real insight into
the life of a Chanto ruler.

Overlooking the town of Kumul was the group of
buildings making up the Khan's residence, picturesque
in the possession of several stories, high walls, great
gateways, and a paved road leading up to them.
Sending a messenger in advance, we rode first through
a portion of the Turki town, which, with narrow alleys
between fiat-roofed mud-houses, street corners over-
shadowed by fine old trees, — under which groups of
gaudily dressed Kumuliks lounged and talked, — with
mosques and minarets, presented a choice of rare pictures
to the eye of the artist. As we approached the palace
and passed under the numerous vaulted gates into
the inner courtyard we felt as if we were approaching
the stronghold of some medieval baron. On our
arrival servants were awaiting us ; some seized our
horses, while others led us on through the last gateway
into the outer hall of the Khan's abode. Here was
drawn up a double line of armed retainers, — a body-
guard of Chinese soldiers, mercenaries in the employ of
the Khan. The Khan himself came down to meet us,
and led us, with much ceremony, into the inner chamber,
where we sat down and drank tea.

The palace was a quaint structure, a composition
of both Chinese and Turki architecture, the interior
being well furnished in Chinese style. Here in Eastern
luxury lived the Khan, surrounded by his retainers and

S5
>

I— (

<
I

HAMI, OR KUMUL 489

courtiers ; he kept up considerable state, which befitted
his position as ruler, but tended to increase the strain on
the resources of the Kumuliks. He possessed stables
for his horses, mews for his falcons, and a three-storied
harem for his womenfolk, while surrounding the palace
was spread a garden of extraordinary luxuriance.

Mahsud Shah, as a vassal of the Emperor of China,
visits Pekin every sixth year, where he acts as personal
servant to the Emperor for forty days, in proof of his
allegiance. These visits had considerably enlarged his
ideas, and were responsible for the introduction of many
innovations, quite beyond his means, into the ceremony
of his Court. Hence, no doubt, the growing discontent
amongst his subj ects, for we gathered that the Prince was
more feared than liked, and therefore unpopular. Treated
with respect and honour by the Chinese, who upheld his
authority, in receipt from the Government of 2,000 tael
a year, besides twenty-five bales of silk, etc., with his
people in comparative serfdom, he has a very good
time and is presumably very wealthy. He certainly
upheld the reputation of Kumul for liberal hospitality.

After an hour spent in talking and drinking tea, the
Khan showed us his garden. Followed by an escort
of attendants, we paraded the paved walks which led
in and out amongst orchards and flower-beds; crossed
little bridges built in Chinese fashion over running streams
irrigating the land ; passed several miniature mosques,
and finally reached a summer-house which lay under a
group of giant elm-trees. Here tea was again served and
we rested a little, for the Khan was not used to long
walks. Later we visited the shooting-range where the
archers practised, and then continued our walk to the
iris-beds. Here was an artificial lake, and on an island

490 KAMI, OR KUMUL

in the midst of irises and overshadowed by a ring of tall
poplars was built a cool pavilion for use during the
midsummer heat.

On our return to the palace we sat down to the real
dinner of thirty-courses, served up in Chinese style.
We had eaten Chinese dinners before, so the entertain-
ment was no novelty ; but the peculiar circumstances
under which it was given made it interesting. For^
although our host lived in a Chinese house, entertained
us with exact Chinese ceremonial, gave us a Chinese
dinner, was dressed himself, as were all his servants,
in Chinese costume and wore mock pigtails, yet, on the
other hand, there was much in the Khan that was not at
all Chinese. The Prince was almost European in features ;
he had the dignity, the ease, and the charming manners of
a Mohammedan gentleman ; he talked in Turki in the
most friendly way, and seemed to understand the aims
and objects of wandering Englishmen in Central Asia.
His real character showed up in contradiction to all that
he had copied from China, when, for example, he would
only touch the spirit from a bottle he had opened in our
honour, and when he left us half-way through dinner
in order to pray at the mosque ! He much wanted to
make the pilgrimage to Mecca, but was doubtful of ob-
taining the necessary permission from the Emperor of
China, perhaps also fearing to leave his people under
the present unsettled conditions. He took great pride
in showing us the extent of his resources and the variety
of his belongings. A crowd of courtiers were on duty in
the adjoining room, and at the expression of the slightest
wish half a dozen men would cry, " Khosh ! " and hasten
to obey his commands. We chanced to ask if he had
any falcons, and the falconers appeared as if by magic.

KAMI, OR KUMUL 491

one with a peregrine, another a goshawk, and a third
bearing a magnificent golden-eagle. His guns were
brought for our inspection — a Mauser and a Winchester
rifle, a Browning automatic-pistol and a 12-bore shot-
gun; he showed us his camera, which he could not
work ; while his gramophone played to us English,
Russian, and Chinese music.

Besides his residence in the capital, the Khan had two
country-seats, one at Ara-tam at the foot of the mountain,
and another in the high valley of Bardash ; both of these
we visited in the course of our journey through his
territory. As a landed proprietor, he had some of the
finest orchards in Central Asia, a considerable acreage
of corn-land, and large flocks and herds, these latter
being tended by forced labour, for the Khan exacted a
tax of five days' work out of every month, or two
months a year, from all his subjects.

We asked him how far his territory extended, and
with a sweep of the arm he said, " All that you see is
mine, and more that you cannot see — behind the moun-
tain." This was more or less correct, for although a
portion of the Barkul Range which is visible to the north-
west of Kumul does not actually belong to him, yet it is
■an uninhabited country and not of much consequence.
All that is of value within view of the capital is under
the Khan. The plains are dotted with occasional oases —
miniature Kumuls, which are situated wherever water
-approaches the surface and allows irrigation ; but the
Karlik Tagh Mountains really compose the greater part,
as well as the most important part, of the Khan's do-
minion. About 7,500 square miles lie under his rule, and
of this nearly one-half is taken up by the rugged ranges
and high plateaux which provide pasture for the flocks and

492 KAMI, OR KUMUL

herds, small areas for cultivators, and — most important
of all — the entire water-supply on which depends the
existence of the oases on the plains below.

The combination of physical and climatic conditions
comprised within the dominions of the Khanate of Kumul
renders it a complete, self-supporting, and independent
region. There exists every variety of scenery, tempera-
ture, fauna and flora. There are dry deserts below,
granite ranges above, mountain torrents, pine forests,
alpine pastures, snow-fields and glaciers. There are rice
fields and vegetable gardens ; luscious fruits, such as
melons, grapes, and apricots from the plains, and apples
and pears from the hills ; there are corn-lands and fine
sheep pastures. From cool glaciers one can look down
on to dusty plains at a distance of only a long day's
march ; and the haunts of such mountain-loving fauna
as ibex, wild-sheep, and snow-cock margin closely on
those of gazelle and wild-horses ! The region is one of
peculiar extremes even for Central Asia, where, as Curzon
has remarked, "nature seems to revel in striking the
extreme chords upon her miraculous and inexhaustible
gamut of sound."

It was the Karlik Tagh that was the real object of
our visit, for, although we traversed some 3,000 miles of
country in Dzungaria both by plain and mountain, this
portion alone offered the chance of making additions to
geographical knowledge. The region between the Altai
and Tian Shan had been fairly well mapped ; new ground
alone remained on the south-eastern border-ranges —
the Bogdo-ola, Barkul, and Karlik Tagh. To speak of
this region as being a part of Dzungaria is incorrect,
for the watershed of these ranges forms the boundary
between that country and Chinese Turkestan; but, in

KAMI, OR KUMUL 493

this case, the boundary of the region to which we de-
voted ourselves was of necessity a pohtical one, the
Karhk Tagh on both north and south belonging to the
Khan of Kumul. This was the only point where our
work extended outside the natural boundaries of Dzun-
garia.

The area of country over which the word of the
Khan is law, includes the entire mountain-group of
Karlik Tagh and the plains to the north, south, and east,
as far as Karlik Tagh water flows. The Tur Kul basin
on the north side of the range, and the eastern half of
the Metshin-ola, an offshoot of the main group, is in-
cluded, as is also the eastern portion of the Barkul basin,
beyond Kou-si. The Barkul range, as far north as the
watershed, is the Khan's, while the western boundary
of his territory is determined by the town of Lodun, or
Liao-tun, three stages along the high-road to Turfan.

The fact that our goal lay entirely within the jurisdic-
tion of the Khan greatly simplified matters for us.
When we informed him of our plans he answered that
he and all his belongings were at our disposal ; we could
ask all we needed, and should lack nothing so long as
we were within his territory. Consequently, orders
were given to enable us to travel at our pleasure and
view the whole of his country; whilst letters were
sent ahead and the way prepared, we had time to
enjoy the beauties of the mountains which it had for
so long been our ambition to visit.

CHAPTER XVII

THE KARLIK TAGH

On a clear day the view from Kumul is inspiring. South-
wards stretch the yellow deserts to the fabulous Lake
Toli, and still farther away to the gates of China Proper.
Across these runs the track connecting Sin-Kiang with
the home provinces. A desert-stage of eighteen days
would take the traveller to An-hsi-chow, on the farther
side of the Gobi, and two more would allow him to rest
his eyes on the Hoang Ho — the Yellow River. North-
wards rise the snow-ridges of the Barkul range, linking
up farther east with the Karlik Tagh, which culminates
in several fine summits. The mountains rise abruptly,
straight from the plain, superb in their setting of far-
flung Gobi, lifting their crests in triumph above the
haze and the dust of the low-lying deserts.

It was early spring when we first sighted the Karlik
Tagh, the abundant snows that lay on the high, flat
summits and spread themselves out in smooth fields over
the plateaux lending an enchantment to the somewhat
barren plains of dust and stone that lay around. Here
the mountains end and the deserts begin, for at this
point the great Tian Shan mountain-system, after extend-
ing from west to east for close on sixteen hundred miles,
finds at last its limit. Dropping, as before described,
into a low, rounded plateau-country at the eastern end

494

THE KARLIK TAGH 495

of the Bogdo-ola section, it then rises again in one
last effort, attains a worthy altitude of over 14,000 ft.,
and drops sheer into utter desert. This solitary group
of snow pinnacles stands as a sentinel guarding the
marches of Mongolia, of Dzungaria, and of Turkestan.
Day after day, during our tramps around the range,
those peaks were our land-mark, and for weeks during
our survey-work our " sights" rested continually on them.
Far out into the deserts beyond, they guided us and put
aright our erring calculations. They were a source
of wonder, whether sulphur-yellow as dawn flushed the
sky, or caught at evening by the rose-gleam when the
flats below were already dusky; scarcely a day passed
without our being treated to some new impression of the
Karlik Tagh.

A word as to our forerunners in these regions and
the extent of their discoveries.

In 1872 we received the first accounts of the way
thither from Russian territory, through the means of a
trading expedition, which a Russian merchant despatched
into Mongolia, and which touched at Barkul on its
wanderings. It was not until 1875, however, that the
first true explorers, coming across the Gobi Desert from
China, roughly recorded the topography of Kumul,
Barkul, and the neighbouring mountains. These were
Russians — Sosnovski and Matussovski, who came
through to Kumul by the high-road from Western China,
and, crossing the passes to Barkul, visited Guchen on
their way home to Siberia. A member of the expedition,
Piassetsky, left us an account of this journey, one of the
few records of Russian travel which has been translated
into the English language.

To these travellers must be assigned the honour of
II — 12

496 THE KARLIK TAGH

being the first visitors, but the following year more
systematic work than theirs was accomplished, and
finer results obtained, by the expedition under the
celebrated Potanin, who, with Rafailow as surveyor,
came down to Barkul from Kobdo and the Eastern Altai.
The expedition crossed the Barkul Range, paid a short
visit to Kumul, and returned by the same pass {the
Kosheti-dawan) , by which they had come. The travellers
then explored the northern flanks of Karlik Tagh as far
as Adak and Nom, and returned to Siberia by way of
Uliassutai. The maps of Potanin and Rafailow stood
for many years as the standard survey of those regions,
and, as a matter of fact, up till the time of our visit
there had been no additions to their original survey of
the northern flanks of the Karlik Tagh. Rafailow de-
termined the astronomical positions of Barkul, Adak,
and Kumul ; but, although his observations still hold
good for the two former places, more recent work by
Stein's surveyor and Mr. Clementi has placed Kumul
slightly farther to the west. The retention on the maps
of the work of these early explorers shows how few other
travellers have visited this region during the time which
has elapsed since its first discovery.

The next visitor was Prjevalsky, who seems to have
included visits to most towns in Central Asia on his
itinerary of exploration. This experienced traveller,
on his third scientific journey through Middle Asia,
(1879-80), passed by Barkul — without entering it, and
rested for a short time at Kumul on his way to Tibet.
He gives a short description of the famous oasis, but
has nothing to say about the Karlik Tagh or neigh-
bouring ranges.

Although Potanin gave us the first ideas of the

THE KARLIK TAGH 497

geography of the Karhk Tagh Mountains and the basin
of Barkul, it remained for two other explorers, the
brothers Grum Grjimailo (1889-91), to show the
nature of the country between the Barkul and the Bogdo-
ola groups and of the desert region to the south-east of
Kumul. The topography of these regions, as represented
on the maps predating their explorations, was mere
imagination. These travellers, who were chiefly interested
in natural history, were the first to put forward a theory
that the Karlik Tagh had certain affinities with the Altai
mountain-system, instead of, as expected, with the Tian
Shan. They were the first to explore the famous Bogdo-
ola Mountains and the Tou-shui plateau, which they
crossed and recrossed in several different directions. They
also visited Kumul and the southern flanks of the Karlik
Tagh, before striking east-south-east into the unknown
Gobi.

In 1887 the first Englishman visited Kumul ; this
was Captain (now Sir Francis) Younghusband, who, in
the course of a trans-continental journey from Pekin to
India, came to the Karlik Tagh from the north-east,
having followed the northern Gobi trade-route from
Kalgan. He crossed the eastern spurs of the Karlik
Tagh from Mogai to Kumul, and, staying there four
days, passed on to Turfan and Kashgar. In the same
year Colonel Mark Bell reached Kumul from the south
and crossed the ranges to Barkul, thus being the only
Englishman in advance of us to visit this town.

The map of the Karlik Tagh region remained un-
revised until Kozloff arrived in Kumul, at the termination
of extended journeys in Chinese Turkestan and Tibet,
accomplished between the years 1893-5. In those days
Kozloff was working under the experienced Roborovsky^,.^-^^t ^

'- c* ■- i,- /^

498 THE KARLIK TAGH

but he was entrusted with the management of many-
lateral expeditions. From Kumul, for instance, he made
an excursion into the Karlik Tagh, and gave us the
most up-to-date map of that region as a whole, which
still stands on the Russian " 40-verst " sheets as the
most correct survey. Kozloff's journey was the most
scientific, and gave finer results than any other traveller's
in those regions. He visited Narin, Tur Kul, Adak, Nom,
and Bai, and made an ascent into the alpine region^
describing his experiences with remarkable ability.

After Kozloff's visit twelve years elapsed before the
next explorer set foot in these regions. This was Dr.
(now Sir Aurel) Stein, who, in his itinerary of archaeo-
logical research, made the complete circuit of Chinese
Turkestan. Stein arrived in Kumul in the autumn
of 1907, and spent two weeks in the oasis itself and
on a visit to Toruk and Ara-tam ; there he investi-
gated the ruins of certain Buddhist shrines, while Rai
Lai Singh, his Indian surveyor, explored the southern
flanks of the mountains between Khotun-tam and the
Barkul passes. Stein's work considerably altered the
configuration of this portion of the range as shown on
previous maps, and a certain amount of material from
his maps is embodied in that published at the end of this
volume.

During Stein's visit to Kumul another traveller, Mr.
Cecil Clementi, passed through on his way across China.
Success in the laborious undertaking of making a com-
plete series of astronomically fixed positions right across
China from Kashgar to Hong-Kong has caused the
acceptance of his position for Kumul, in preference to
those of others, in the reproduction of my plane-table
survey ; beyond this his work has not affected mine. The

THE KARLIK TAGH 499

antiquities of this region have been investigated by Dr.
von Lecoq and Professor Griinwedel, who explored those
they considered worthy of excavation, near Togucha, to
the west of Kumul, where they found interesting remains
belonging to Buddhist times.

Many other travellers have, no doubt, passed through
Kumul on their way east or west, but none, except
those here enumerated, have, so far as I can ascertain,
visited Karlik Tagh or Barkul. The object of our visit
was to complete the survey of the region and to bring
out a detailed map of the whole mountain-group, as
well as to gain some idea of its fauna, so as to be able to
decide the exact place the Karlik Tagh holds in the life-
zones of Central Asia. A lateral journey to the far east,
which should have included a visit to the Ati Bogdo,
was planned, but this most important portion of the
programme had to be given up, owing primarily to
the extreme difficulty of finding transport or guides into
a region to which men never go — from this quarter,
as well as to lack of time. By making a complete
circle around the range, however, by penetrating to
its uppermost valleys, and clambering (with no small
amount of difficulty) over its rugged sandstone foot-hills,
we gained a reliable idea of its physical features and
a rare insight into the conditions of life on this insular
mountain-group. '

The panorama of mountains spread out to the north
and north-east of Kumul was instructive. North of the
oasis, at a distance of about twenty-five miles, lay the
Barkul Range, running east and west, in a narrow
ridge. The western part of this range presented the
appearance of a fiat-topped block-mountain, but in

^ See map at end of volume.

500 THE KARLIK TAGH

the neighbourhood of the highest peaks the ridge became
rough and serrated. Farther east the Barkul Range
dropped in altitude, thus allowing free intercourse
between Kumul and the northern steppes, over several
cols of between 8,000 to 9,000 ft. in height. At this
point the Karlik Tagh began, — a long, table-topped
ridge which gradually inclined from 9,000 ft. to the
summit of the highest peak in the centre of the range.

The western Karlik Tagh showed a large expanse
of deep-lying snow-fields, which added to the grandeur
of this panoramic view, and emphasized the peculiar,
blocked-shaped formation of the range. Its plateau-like
summit was seamed by deep-cut, steep-sided ravines,
which led off the drainage. Even the highest peaks
visible from Kumul were of a rounded type, and did not
do justice to their height ; but immediately to the east
of the culminating point the formation changed, the
plateau broke up and fell off into excessively rough
country, with lofty, tooth-like pinnacles and jagged
peaks, well worn, razor-edged ridges, splintered precipices,
and V-shaped valleys. The snow-line extended for over
thirty miles in length, and over this area, even in summer,
no pass or track is known by which man can cross the
range from north to south. Barren, stony plains led
up to the foot-hills, which rose suddenly in the form of
a rough, steep ridge of sandstone. This the desert had
waged war upon and successfully overrun, but beyond
these outlying foot-hills the higher slopes showed welcome
green of forest, above which naked rock and shale-slopes
led up to stainless, untrodden snow-fields.

Whilst waiting for our transport arrangements to be
completed, we made a short trip to the foot of the
mountains, which gave us a good impression of the nature

ROUGH CLIMBING IN THE KARLIK TAGH.

joo]

THE KARLIK TAGH 501

of the ground and of the condition of the Kumuhk culti-
vators in those parts. Leaving Kumul on March 12th
with one man as guide, we rode to the north-north-east.
Immediately on leaving the cultivated areas we found
that the sandy soil, deprived of its moisture by irrigation
works, was threatening to overrun the oasis ; the land had
perished, and the desert was encroaching on the " sown."
Beyond this, a bare gravel ''sai" led us, for twenty
miles, up to the rocky girdle of sandstone which forms
the first foot-hills of the range. There was nothing to
note during this long ride except one great watch-tower
which stood alone in the plain, about half-way between
Kumul and the mountains. Being massively built, it
formed a landmark for a great distance, and was evidently
intended as a place of refuge. Stein says that it was
reputed to be of great age, and he questions from what
marauding tribes of the north was it meant to offer
shelter.

On approaching the foot-hills we found a small river
issuing from a gorge in the sandstone range, and
forming a tiny area of fertile land at the point where
it entered the plain. The river had cut a deep trench
in the gravel fan, and terraces a hundred feet high
margined the little valley, in which were ensconced the
fields and village of Toruk. Toruk was apparently a
typical village of Kumuliks, whose progress is limited
by the amount of land at their disposal and the amount
of water they are allowed to use for irrigation purposes.
This locality supported only some twelve or fifteen houses ;
these were crowded together in the space of less than
half an acre, and formed a circle, completely walled
in but for one wide gateway. Boulders from the river-
bed and mud formed the building material. Naturally

502 THE KARLIK TAGH

the houses were mere hovels, but we were entertained
by the friendly Kumuliks in their homely way, and
given the best that the village could offer.

Their land scarcely extended for a mile down the
valley, which was half a mile wide ; but even this small
area was not all available for cultivation, the growing of
crops depending upon the amount of soil left amongst the
rocks and boulders. Every available spot was used, and
I strongly suspect the artificial making of fields within
range of the irrigation canals, by the laborious means of
bringing soil from the terraces above. This example shows
how closely the economic possibilities of Karlik Tagh
are put to the test by the Kumuliks and what amount
of labour is expended in order to sustain their simple
lives. The river, the main source of the water-supply of
Kumul, must bring a considerable flood at times, for it
was spanned by a good bridge. At the time of our visit
it was frozen over, but water was flowing under the two-
foot coating of ice. Two miles below the village it dis-
appeared altogether below the surface of the ground, and
three miles farther even the high river-terraces spread
out and lost themselves in the wide fan of the river-bed,
which farther still became scarcely discernible.

Above the village rose the sandstone foot-hills of Karlik
Tagh. This outlying range of sandstone was perhaps
the most peculiar feature of this side of the mountains.^
It extended as a barrier between the plain and the high-
lands all the way from Toruk to Khotun-tam, and con-
fined the Taghliks, or mountaineers, and their villages to
the secluded upper valleys which lay behind. Toruk,
for instance, was quite cut off from direct communication
with those numerous settlements of Taghliks which

1 See diagram, p. 521.

IS*'

1—

GORGE IN THE SANDSTONE FOOTHILLS OF KARLIK TAGH.
502]

THE KARLIK TAGH 503

find ample room for cultivation on the middle course of
the river, between the sandstone and the main range.
The rivers invariably pass through this sandstone ridge
in deep-cut, impassable ravines, the lower valle^-s rarely
giving access to the upper. This rendered travelling ex-
ceedingly laborious, it being necessary to make big detours
in order to reach the mountain villages situated at the
back of the foot-hills.

We returned to Kumul by the way we had come, and
set about making the final arrangements for our move
eastwards. By command of the Khan, men and horses
were provided for us, and such orders were given as
would enable us to travel at our pleasure, and see the
whole of his territory. An old Kumulik Beg, a gentleman
of most courtly manners, was especially deputed to
accompany us and to arrange all our affairs whilst travel-
ling within the Khanate. Relays of horses were to take
us from place to place, wherever our work led us, whilst
our heavy baggage could go by cart along the plain, at
the foot of the mountain. Lodgings were to be prepared
for us at the villages and food supplied, and injunctions
were given that, as we were travelling under the Khan's
orders, no remuneration should be demanded of us. It
was only by a careful and secret distribution of presents
to those who had been called upon to supply food,
lodging, or transport, that we were able to accept, with
a clear conscience, the hospitality of the mountaineers
of Karlik Tagh. In this manner we traversed the whole
of the Karlik Tagh until leaving the territor)^ of the Khan
at Barkul.

We finally left Kumul on March 15th, and travelled
eastwards to Ta-shar, a village which proved to be another
example of the admirable use the Kumuliks make of good

504 THE KARLIK TAGH

soil, Ij'ing within play of a river as it issues from the
sandstone range and before it sinks into the ground. Ta-
shar was a tiny hamlet, but seemed to be able to supply
all that we needed : — a warm, clean, and comfortable
lodging, excellent Chanto food, and pleasant people to deal
with. The following day we sent our heav^^ baggage on to
Khotun-tam by the plain, whilst Miller and I, escorted by
our friend and guide — the Beg, made a detour and worked
our way round by a mountain-track. Ta-shar was
situated at the end of the Bardash River, which came
out from a sandstone gorge a few miles above, a foaming,
laughing, racing stream, watering on its way the famous
orchards and gardens which surround Ara-tam, the summer
residence of the Khan.

From Ta-shar we picked our way over a boulder-
strewn fan, where the hardy cultivators had endeavoured
to make their fields, and presently found ourselves
wandering amongst the luxuriant growth of the Khan's
gardens. Gigantic poplars towered above the groves of
walnut, apple, peach, and apricot -trees ; under these,
running brooks, bordered by dense scrub, tumbled
their way over the steep descent to the plain. It was
an approach as charming as if laid out by Nature herself,
our chief regret being that the trees were not yet in leaf.
The Khan's country-house lay close under the sandstone
ridge, half hidden by fine old trees. Here we rested and
drank tea provided by the caretakers, before exploring
the ruins which, although in a much dilapidated con-
dition, still remain. The cellas, the remains of seated
Buddhas carved out of the rock, and the frescoes have
been described by Stein, who placed them as belong-
ing to the time of the Uigur dominion, i.e. between
the ninth and twelfth centuries. Great destruction, due

THE KARLIK TAGH 505

to fire and moisture, had robbed the excavator of what
might have been of great interest, and the existence of
these shrines was little more than a proof of the former
religion of the inhabitants of Karlik Tagh, besides show-
ing that this locality must have been a favourite
summer-resort of the old Uigur Khans. Their collapse is
a sign that Karlik Tagh lies on the edge of a region of
greater precipitation than is the Tarim basin, where,
owing to lack of rainfall, such antiquities have remained
intact.

The Bardash Valley, whose waters irrigate Ara-tam,
is typical of the whole southern side of Karlik Tagh, so I
may as well give my impressions, as they came to me, of
the contrasting features of the entire length of the valley,,
from sandstone barrier to glacier-snout. Leaving the
plain, we faced the abrupt wall that formed the first
foot-hills. The river- valley itself was not negotiable, —
the stream winding its way through a steep-sided ravine
and allowing no space for a track, — so for some hours
we toiled painfully over barren red ridges, destitute of
everything but thorn-scrub. Occasionally from the crest
of a ridge we got a view of some peaks far ahead in the
heart of the range, and of the immeasurable desert that
lay below and behind us ; but later, when we dropped
down out of the sandstone border-ridges into the main
Bardash Valley, our views were impeded by the sur-
rounding hills. Here, beside the mountain-stream, grew
thickets of willow and rose, and we passed under groups
of tall poplars, elms, and walnuts which in summer
would grant welcome shade to these hot, shut-in valleys.
At convenient and picturesque places our friend, the
Beg, would produce a " dastarkhan " of bread, dried
apricots, and raisins, and persuade us to rest a little.

5o6 THE KARLIK TAGH

He had evidently been told to show off the beauties of
his master's possessions, having already led us around
the Khan's old country-seat with an enthusiasm that
would have done justice to any professional showman.

For the twelve miles of mountain which lay between
Ara-tam and the settlements on the middle Bardash there
was neither room nor facility for human occupation, but
later in the day we came to a place where the hills
receded, the valley-floor widened, and men had space to
cultivate. In these secluded upper valleys, such as the
Bardash, the Taghliks, or mountaineers, lived a peaceful
existence. Their settlements were scattered, and the
villages never large, their size depending entirely on the
amount of land left at their disposal by somewhat harsh
physical conditions. Most valleys supported but one
village ; only in the Narin Valley, where two rivers united
before breaking through the outer-range, were there
several villages and a considerable extent of cultivation.
Often, too, we came across isolated groups of three or four
farmsteads located in a place where the nature of the
country afforded only such an area of cultivatable land
as to just support them. Every available patch of
ground was made use of, and I do not believe there are
many spare acres on the mountains. With an increasing
population, the land available for cultivation does not
increase, and, since the Khan forbids emigration, there is
** overcrowding " in the pleasant valleys of the " snowy "
range.

After the impoverished aspect of the plains these high
valleys seemed pleasant enough. We rode through fields
which had been cleared — with infinite labour — of rocks,
and crossed brooks of clearest water margined by dainty
willows. Chukar and brown partridges called from the

THE KARLIK TAGH 507

hillsides, and small boys herding the flocks of goats sang
more joyous songs in their mountain-home than did their
confreres of the melancholy plains. Pleasantly situated^
too, were their houses of stone and mud, which were,
in many cases, perched on the rocks so as to avoid wasting
land capable of growing crops. In no less a degree did
the people attract us. They were essentially mountain-
folk ; their environment seemed to have so branded
them that we imagined we could trace a likeness between
them and the Tadjik mountaineers of Bokhara or Hunza,
rather than the lethargic Chantos of the Turkestan
plains. The lives of these mountain-folk were certainly
harder than those of the Kumuliks in the hot oases below.
The ground had to be cleared of rocks before ploughing
was possible, and, even then, there was not overmuch
land.

Bardash was a scattered village of about twenty farm-
steads, and had additional importance owing to the
presence of a disused country-house belonging to the
Khan. In former days this had always been the summer
resort of the ruling chiefs, but the present Khan was too
old to accomplish the journey over the mountains, and
his " shooting-box " had now fallen into disrepair. It
was, however, a " show place " to visitors like ourselves,
and we were escorted over it with much ceremony, appar-
ently by the orders of the great man himself. The house
was charmingly situated in an orchard, surrounded by
fine walnut-trees ; but, being built largely of wood, in
Chinese style, it had fared badly from wet and winter
snow.

The chief man of the village set aside for us a room
in his home, killed a sheep, and made a real Turkish
" pillof " in our honour. They were a gay, happy lot

5o8 THE KARLIK TAGH

at Bardash, free of intercourse and outwardly friendly
with us non-Mussulmans, owing no doubt to the
distance which separated Bardash from Kumul and
placed them beyond the influence of their hard task-
master, the Khan. For this separation the sandstone
range must be accounted largely responsible. The men
were well-made, clad in half- Chinese, half-Chanto cos-
tumes, and wore moccasins over thick felt stockings. The
women, too, were more independent than their friends
" in town" ; they made no attempt to hide their faces,
and behaved with a freedom and natural inquisitiveness
which was denied to the Kumulik ladies. Their good-
humoured merriment was cheering after the morosity
and stolid indifference to amusement to which we had
become almost accustomed ; their hospitality and friend-
liness were a real pleasure after the reticence of the
surly Chinamen ; and their neat little houses gave one
some impression of a true home after the cold welcome
of inns and the draughty abodes of wandering nomads.
The Taghliks much impressed us, for we had travelled
for close on a year without coming across sedentary
mountain-dwellers ; nomads in the high mountains were
common enough, but only in the Karlik Tagh did we
find villages inhabited by a settled race.

Later in the course of the expedition I again visited
Bardash and explored the valley up to its source under
the highest peak of the range. Cultivation and farms I
found extending up the valley for several miles, — as far
as the foot of an immense old moraine, which reached
for a distance of some six or seven miles below the
existing glaciers. This moraine choked the valley, the
main river and a tributary passing through deep gorges
on either side of it ; yet even here the natives had

THE KARLIK TAGH 509

cunningly led irrigation-canals from the streams on to the
top of the ancient moraine, where they cultivated small
fields of barley.

In this naked land, denuded of vegetation, every geo-
graphical feature was demonstrated with diagrammatic
clearness. The former extent of glaciation was clearly
shown. I travelled for two hours over this old moraine
before coming to more recent ones, typified by hollows
filled with little lakes ; and after toiling several hours
through deep snow-drifts arrived at impregnable country
close to the glaciers which hung below the highest peaks.
The Bardash River had three heads ; these drained the
southern side of the highest points, all of them having
their sources in glaciers. The largest of these was at
the source of the tributary which rose on the south-
western side of Peak No. IL, but I did not measure it ;
the glacier on the south-eastern side was about a mile
in length, and that at the head of the other source
half a mile long. All the glaciers were very steep ;
and, as far as I could see, were in a state of retreat.
Observations on the northern side of the mountains,
however, seemed to point to a recent advance in the
snouts of the glaciers.

The uppermost portion of the valley should afford
fine summer pastures, and is, no doubt, made use of
by the Taghliks, but at the time of my visit (April 8th)
it was deep in snow, which lay everywhere above
8,000 ft. The arid nature of this valley was proved
by the fact of it possessing no forest ; I saw only one
little group of larch trees. This is strange, because
forests of considerable extent exist on the southern
flanks of the far eastern end of the range and on the
northern flanks at the north-western end, yet the

510 THE KARLIK TAGH

Bardash Valley, situated close under the culminating
point of the range, should possess a more abundant
rainfall, and, therefore, heavier vegetation.

In the Upper Bardash I found myself in a trench-
like valley, with wide, open bottom and steep sides,
up which it was necessary to clamber in order to
obtain a view. Climbing, however, was no easy task,
for the snow was soft and let me in up to the knees — and
often up to the hips — at every step, but four hours of
stiff work over snow-covered boulder-skrees took me
up on to that table-topped ridge, so distinctly seen from
Kumul. The view repaid me for the strenuous climb,
for, at a fair distance, I had spread out before me a
complete panorama of the highest peaks (from No. I
to VIP), which taught me the topography of the alpine
regions of Karlik Tagh far better than if I had ascended
the highest peak itself, which at this season was impreg-
nable. The panoramic view I obtained is reproduced
on page 496 ; it clearly demonstrates the plateau-like
summit of the western end of the range, and the deep-
cut gorges of which I spoke. The culminating point of
the range shows as a rounded summit, and to the east of
it are the serrated ridges and pinnacles of the eastern
portion of the Karlik Tagh.

The excessive roughness of the country made travel-
ling laterally along the range very difficult. The valley
of Bardash was so cut off that, in order to reach another
valley, one needed to toil over transverse ridges for a day's
journey. A break in the formation, however, allowed
a track to run east and west along the north side of
the sandstone range, between it and the higher spurs.
We followed this route from Bardash, and, passing the
forested valley of Karchamak, arrived at Khotun-tam, a

THE KARLIK TAGH 511

village situated in a boulder-strewn locality at the foot
of the mountains, where our main caravan awaited us.
Khotun-tam marked the end of the sandstone foot-hills
and the limit of the plateau-like summit of the main
range. Above this village the Karlik Tagh lifted up its
knife-like and deeply serrated main ridge, and deep-cut
valleys gave a direct approach to the highlands from
the plain. The spurs of the range retreated, the
distance between the desert plain and the alpine region
shortened, and the marked contrasts of the scenery
were intensified.

The absence of the border-range and the shortness
of the valleys allowed the Taghliks to live in their
villages on the plains, and at the same time to make
what use they could of the highlands to which the
valleys gave easy access. Thus the eastern Karlik Tagh
was portioned off between the various villages lying on
the high smooth plain at the foot of the mountains.
Khotun-tam, for instance, monopolized the two valleys
to its north ; Ulu-tai had its own valley ; the Koshmak
valley was used in summer by the Chinese farmers from
Tashbulak — a village some miles away to the south,
while the Little Koshmak belonged to the inhabitants
of Shopoli.

Khotun-tam, although at the foot of the real hill-
country, had an altitude of over 5,500 ft. Beyond was
a high, smooth plain which swept away to the south-
east, never dropping much below 4,000 ft., and finally
merging into higher country. Much water rendered a
large area suitable for cultivation ; in fact, a string of
farms and small fields extended all the way east to Tash-
bulak. In this zone the population concentrated, and,
consequently, we found the mountains quite deserted.
II— 13

512 THE KARLIK TAGH

Travelling now became more pleasant, spring being
already in evidence in these sheltered localities. Al-
though the Khotun-tam River was frozen over, the
poplars were bursting their buds and the willow- stems
were red ; summer-birds were fast arriving, and on
April i6th the first butterflies were seen. Up the valley,
small fields, — off which a crop would be taken during
the summer months, — extended to an altitude of about
8,000 ft. Indications of the summer-resorts used by
the Khotun-tamliks were not lacking, for besides the
kraals for cattle we noticed a curious kind of dw^elling
which seemed to be a reproduction of a nomad's yurt.
This consisted of a circular wall of stones, on the top
of which was erected a roof of spruce-poles in the form
of a wigwam or tepee, over which, during the summer,
was spread a covering of felt.

The valley itself was a good example of the great
denudation to which the Karlik Tagh has been subject.
The lower half of the valley was a V-shaped gorge ;
higher up its floor was choked and barriered with more
matter than the stream could carry away; the ascent
was very steep, and in seven miles along the valley-
bottom we passed from 5,500 ft. to 9,000 ft. Grass
grew where possible, and poplars extended along the
stream up to 8,000 ft. ; above this altitude scrub filled
the bottoms, and spruce forest appeared on the slopes
facing north and north-west. The ascent of a ridge, to
an altitude of 12,800 ft., helped me to place a large area
of unknown country on the map, which now grew in im-
portance as we approached the quite unsurveyed eastern
end of the range. This ascent proved to me clearly that
all previous estimates of the height of the culminating
points were at fault.

THE KARLIK TAGH 513

From Khotun-tam the survey was run eastwards
over hill, hollow, and plain to Shopoli, a small village
situated in a region possessing many interesting char-
acteristics. This village was the most easterly Taghlik
settlement on the southern side of the mountains, and
the last we were to visit for some time to come.

The impression left by Shopoli was one of wind,
dust, and rain. We had imagined that; the farther
east we travelled, and the nearer we approached the
Gobi, the greater the aridity would become ; yet, for
some peculiar reason, we found this particular region to
be rich in forests, pasture, and wild-game, all of which
pointed to a considerable precipitation. The proximity
of the Gobi was merely brought to our notice by the
prevalence of dust-laden winds of great violence. The
winds commenced immediately on our arrival, and
during the first two days our work was delayed by a
strong east wind which filled the air with dust and
hid all distant views. The inhabitants took it as a
matter of course, remarking that the air always became
thick and hazy on these occasions. Frequent winds
of this kind would be exasperating to the explorer,
outdoor work being rendered impossible.

That this region had a phenomenal rainfall was first
suggested to me by the sight of the forested slopes to
the northward ; this was confirmed by the remarks
of the natives, who being asked why their houses were
built with slanting roofs, in Chinese style, replied that
it was on account of the heavy rains. ^ The Turki in-
habitants may have found out that a slanting roof has

1 The natives of Shopoli said that there was an ample summer rainfall,
The snowfall must also be great, for even at the end of May it lay a foot
deep on all slopes with a northern aspect.

514 THE KARLIK TAGH

the advantage, over a flat one, for turning rain; but I
do not myself think it was the rain which determined
the shape of the roofs so much as the fact of a Chinese
village being close by, and that Shopoli had once been in-
habited by Chinese. Many ruined shrines and buildings
showed traces of former Chinese settlers, now restricted
to Tash-bulak ; yet the Chinese influence remains strong,
and the kingdom of the Khan of Kumul is in as much
danger of being assailed by the foreigners in that quarter
as it is in the capital itself.

The natives of Shopoli showed that love of amuse-
ment which old writers have described as being the
chief characteristic of the Kumuliks. They treated us
to some of their local songs, sung to the accompani-
ment of a Chinese violin ; but we cannot refrain from
thinking that, since these people have given up their own
peculiar musical instrument, such as the Chanto guitar,
and use a foreign one, they show signs of becoming
denationalized. Many of the men were clothed in the
Chinese manner, and all spoke the language, yet they
kept with worthy persistency and strictness to their
Mussulman exactitudes of food and cleanliness. The
Chinese element approaches by way of the highlands
which stretch south-eastwards to An-hsi-chow and Su-
chow. This region averages over 5,000 ft, in altitude
and supports Chinese ranchers in small numbers. They
come up to the very borders of the territory of the
Khan, and at one place, Tash-bulak, have actually estab-
lished themselves.

The region lying to the east of the trans-Gobi route,
which leads from Kumul to China, is very little known.
A couple of Russian explorers have crossed it, and
from their map we understand the country to be one of

A TAGHLIK GIRL.

514]

THE KARLIK TAGH 515

desert hills, apparently without much rainfall, for no
drainage is marked; small springs alone showing that
it is capable of supporting human life. Yet this region
rises in some places to as much as 7,400 ft,, and unless
I am altogether mistaken as to the character of such
hill-country in this particular part of Inner Asia, I
strongly suspect that it is not such " bad-land " as the
Russian map represents it to be.

By making a wide circle over the hills to the south
of Shopoli I obtained a definite idea of this region as a
whole. The altitude averaged 5,500 ft., with summits
rising to 6,200 ft. It was a broken hill-country, some-
what formless, with dry wadis winding vaguely in and
out amongst the hills, but having a general direction of
south and south-east. In the wadis grew fine dry grass,
tamarisk, and small saxaul trees, showing the reason
why the natives rear camels in preference to other
beasts. There was no sign of a permanent water-supply,
and therefore no habitations, yet, according to re-
port, it was used by herdsmen who wander over it
feeding their flocks so long as the frozen snow supplies
them with water. The pasture was evidently good,
for we found that wild -sheep inhabited these somewhat
arid ranges; were there occasional springs coming to
the surface, the country to the south-east of Karlik
Tagh would become of some economic value to herds-
men acquainted with its topography. The grazing on
the outlying spurs around Shopoli was responsible for
the semi-nomadic condition of the inhabitants, which
was emphasized by the curious appearance, such as
Shopoli boasted, of houses built on to yurts, and yurts
pitched in the courtyards of houses.

North of the village were several charming valleys.

5i6 THE KARLIK TAGH

Our first expedition was to the Little Koshmak Valley,
to which we were attracted by a fine rock-peak, capped
by a beautiful snow-cornice, that stood up alone — the
last summit of the range. The Little Koshmak intro-
duced us to the forests, every lateral valley with a north
aspect being covered with spruce ; higher up larch ^ crept
in, and finally predominated.

A pleasant and unexpected surprise it was to find
forests of such luxuriance so near to the barren Gobi.
The remarkable beauty of these south-eastern spurs of
the Karlik Tagh, with their grassy tops, forested slopes,
and poplar-choked valleys, — with the immense views
that they afforded of the desert ranges beyond, —
attracted us as much as anything we had seen. The
forest extended down to about 7,000 ft. and grew as
high up as 9,000 ft. ; it was much influenced by aspect,
showing no signs of life on slopes that did not face
north. Thus it was that the Narin Valley, with its
bending course, held an exceptionally large area of
suitable ground, all of which was densely forested,
groups of larch and spruce clinging to every rock-girt
summit, and thickly crowding the more easy slopes.
Here we found traces of " maral," — the great stag of

1 The presence of the larch {Larix sihirica) gave the first sure sign that
the conditions of the Karhk Tagh are not entirely those of the Tian Shan
system. Here was a northern tree, the southernmost range of whicli
we had already determined to be in the Barlik group and in the Mongolian
Altai ; yet this larch had extended its range southwards to the Karlik
Tagh and Barkul Range. Here it lived and thrived, growing to a height
of 40 ft. and 50 ft. with trunks from i ft. to 2 ft. in thickness. There was
no sign of degeneration ; the forest was a healthy one. The pines, on the
other hand, were of a variety peculiar to the Tian Shan Mountains [Abies
schrenkiana) ; these grew to a height of between 30 and 40 ft. Thus,
the forests of Karlik Tagh were composed of two varieties, one peculiar
to the Tian Shan and the other to a more northern zone ; this proved
that the flora of the Karlik Tagh had affinities with that of the Altai.

THE KARLIK TAGH 517

the Tian Shan, and of wild-pig, while the grassy slopes
above the forests supported large herds of ibex, some
of which carried remarkably fine heads.*

The existence of these forests will seem the more
peculiar when the distributions of other forested areas
of the Karlik Tagh are enumerated. The northern side
of the range, where one would most expect forests, is
bereft of trees of any description. The nature of the
ground — an exposed plateau — being quite unsuitable.
On the southern flanks, the Shopoli forests cover by far
the largest area : occasional groups of pine or larch are
found in most valleys, but the only other large extent
of forest is in the upper Edira Valley. Not till one
reaches the Barkul basin are forests encountered of any
considerable extent. The whole length of the northern
flanks of the Barkul Range has a forest-belt, especially
at its eastern end in the neighbourhood of the cols that
lead over to Kumul ; the rounded hills to the east of
Chagan-bulak Pass being very extensively forested. The
Barkul forest-belt runs westwards for some seventy-five
miles, and finally disappears.

To return to our exploration of the valley of the
Little Koshmak. From a camp at 8,500 ft. we made an
ascent to the head of the valley, mapping its course
and attempting an ascent of Peak No. IX., — the pinnacle
of the snow-cornice which had shown up so well from
Shopoli. We steadily climbed up the ridge dividing the
two sources of the river, until an altitude of 12,988 ft.

1 A head, picked up in the Little Koshmak Valley, measured 47^ in.
The wild-sheep of the Karhk Tagh must also run large, for Miller found
some horns on a tomb at Togucha which measured 59 in. in length — with
the tips broken off, — while Younghusband picked up several old horns
lying on the eastern spurs of Karlik Tagh which measured 54 in., and
one gigantic pair of 62 in. in length.

5i8 THE KARLIK TAGH

was reached. Finally, the extremely broken nature of
the rock-country, which consisted of strata of flaky
slate flung up perpendicular to the ridge, and which
came away with every step, stopped us ; but not before
we had found the miniature — quarter-mile-long — glacier
at the foot of No. IX., and traces of old moraines extend-
ing as far as a mile and a half below. We failed to make
the ascent of the pinnacle, but the clinometer readings
were sufficiently consistent to made up for the loss of
a boiling-point reckoning, and we were not out to climb
untrodden peaks for the love of mountaineering. Should
a member of the Alpine Club ever chance to come this
way I recommend him to make a start on No. IX., for,
although not the highest point, it will try his skill and
give him a rare view of snows and deserts.

From summits of 12,000 ft. and 13,000 ft., at the
eastern end of the Karlik Tagh, we enjoyed views
that fully repaid us for the expenditure of time and
for the extraordinary rough climbing entailed. From
these points of vantage, within sight of herds of ibex
and within call of the snow-cock, we looked out
over a region that seemed to embrace the whole of
desert Cathay, and it was easy to grasp its essential
features. Through narrow, deep-cut valleys, clothed
with larch and pine forest, opened up beautiful vistas
of the Gobi, for the Karlik Tagh has the character
of an island set in a wide sea, the views from its
summits being always terminated by the ocean-like
plain that lies around and washes up to its very foot-
hills. On a clear day in winter or early spring, before
the summer heat-haze begins to hide the distance, and
when no south wind, with its complement of "loess,"
darkens the air, one can stand aloft on some pinnacle

THE KARLIK TAGH 519

or spur, and gaze till the eyes ache, over infinite space.
One can search the southern deserts, where yellow flats
indefinitely extend to a far horizon, broken here and
there by pyramidal hills of carmine and yellow ochre.
Eastward one's gaze is mystified by the regions of colour,
shown by the succeeding ranges of desert hills as they
pass from yellow to dun, and from dun to purple, till
they tone to the softest ultramarine, and fade into space
at a hundred-mile range. Even yet one has surveyed
but half the panorama. Northwards the horizon is
broken by distant snow-ranges — the Aji Bogdo, a
southern offshoot of the Mongolian Altai. These stand
up superbly, their height being intensified by the desert
gap which lies between — " the small desert of three days'
journey in extent," of which Marco Polo wrote.

Within our vision we held the frontiers of four
different Asiatic peoples, different worlds altogether to
this settled region of Chanto farm and Kumulik hamlet.
Far to the north we could just discern the territories of
the Kirei Kirghiz and the Mongol hordes ; eastward,
across the intervening zone of uninhabited desert, were
the haunts of Torgut nomads, while from the south
ceaselessly advanced the plodding bands of Chinese
colonists.

On our return to Shopoli we found it impossible to
continue our journey to the Ati Bogdo Mountains. Al-
though this range lay only 180 miles to the east, yet
lack of guides and independent transport made the under-
taking of greater difiiculty than we expected. It seemed
possible that, with an independent caravan and water-
supply, an attempt might be made to travel eastwards
without guides, taking as landmarks the Emir Tagh and
Mount Jingis, until sighting the summits of the Ati

520 THE KARLIK TAGH

Bogdo ; failing this, the traveller must needs go north-
wards to the eastern Altai ranges, where he might fall
in with Mongol wanderers who would perchance be able
to supply transport and guides. A few Khalka — or, as
they called themselves, Mingyn Mongols — who had come
down to Shopoli to trade skins, knew nothing of those
regions, yet the Ati Bogdo is certain to be in com-
munication with Northern Mongolia, although its in-
habitants are Torguts, — summer visitors from the Edsin
Gol or Gashiun Nor, in the very heart of the Gobi. The
Ati Bogdo had so far been approached from the north
alone, this being the reason why we wished to attack
it from the west.

Although a visit would have been of great help to
us in our work of deciding the distribution of life-
zones,^ and in tracing the lines of demarcation between
the fauna of the Tian Shan and Altai, yet the topography
of the intervening region was made clear to us with-
out the labour of a desert journey. A climb to the
summit of the pass that led to Tal showed us the
eastern desert-spurs of Karlik Tagh and the configura-
tion of the region between them and the Ati Bogdo.
A day's journey away to the east rose into sight
the red sandstone pyramid of Emir Tagh, which sloped
desertwards in a long-backed ridge until lost to view.
There seemed to be no connecting range between the
Karlik Tagh and the Ati Bogdo, but rather a genuine
break consisting of hard steppe and stray sand-dunes.
Occasional isolated hills cropped up, such as the Jingis
and Atis peaks, but looking eastwards there was no
suggestion of the pleasant highlands where, — according
to Kozloff, the only visitor, — there are meadows, forests,

* See Appendix, Life-zones of Inner Asia.

THE KARLIK TAGH 521

and running streams, with herds of wild-game such as
sheep and roe-deer.

As we travelled round the eastern spurs we visited
Tal, the summer quarters of the men of Mogoi, whilst
our heavy kit, packed on camels, followed an easier track
along the foot of the hills to Uturuk, on the northern side
of the Karlik Tagh. Settlements of Taghliks were few
and far between, after leaving Shopoli. A few, such as
Mogoi, Bai, Uturuk, Adak, and Nom, existed on streams
draining northwards, — the last examples of sedentary
life on the edge of the nomad's land of Mongolia. For
the most part we had left settled life behind, and, upon

4r«Tton ScmOi StRtnt« XCe/l North

atOOFT ? . '"

A SECTION OF THE KARIJK TAGH FROM NCF?TH TO SOUTH THROUGH THE CEMTRAL PORTIOM OF THE RANGE

reaching the northern flanks of Karlik Tagh, found large
areas either entirely uninhabited or partially used by
nomads.

The different formation of the northern side of the
range was demonstrated by the fact of its being a fine
pasture-land. The rugged, barren, desiccated rock-
region of the southern side was replaced on the north
by a smooth plateau of rolling downs, which occupied
the whole area between 8,000 ft. and 11,000 ft. In con-
sequence, we were enabled to travel comfortably along the
range at an altitude of 10,000 ft. to 11,000 ft. Above us,
rounded spurs and shale slopes led up to the main ridge.

522 THE KARLIK TAGH

while below, the plateau swept down at a gentle grade
until it ended in a low, rough, rocky girdle which, in some
degree, corresponded to the sandstone foot-hills of the
southern side. In this plateau the rivers had carved deep
gorges, and in travelling westwards we found it necessary'
to keep as high up as possible, for lower down the gorges
deepened to terrific cafions.

By moving slowly along the plateau, and keeping
close below the shale slopes, we were able to map the
rivers to their sources and to overlook the countr^'
below, as far as the point where the same rivers ran
dry in the desert. The principal features of the north
side were the gorges which intersected the plateau.
We crossed seven of these, which drained northwards
to Uturuk ; there all united and formed a single
channel, leading out into the plain. On these streams
were situated the only settlements, Urge, Uturuk, Adak,
and Nom, — all larger villages than those on the south ;
Uturuk alone was said to possess a hundred houses.

The topography of the country was plain, and map-
ping was easy work, as compared with the riddles of the
southern side. Ascents, too, were more easily accom-
plished, and it did not take long to run the survey west-
wards to Tur Kul. Of special interest were the little glaciers
which lay at the head of nearly every valley. They
were no larger than those on the south of the range ;
even the wide valleys leading from the highest peaks
did not hold glaciers exceeding two miles in length, but
they showed traces of old moraines five miles below their
present position.

The plateau was uninhabited at that season, it being
still subject to cold winds and snow-storms ; later on,
the herdsmen drive their flocks up and tent there all

A TAGHLIK FARMSTEAD.
On the south side of Karlik Tagli.

522]

TAGHLIK YURTS.
On the northern pastures of Karlik Tagh.

THE KARLIK TAGH 523

the summer. Farther west, however, where the plateau
swept down to the lower altitude of the Tur Kul basin,
we found a permanent population of shepherds. Here
the Taghliks had adopted a semi-nomadic existence,
Ii\ing chiefly in yurts ; even the movable tents presented
a half-fixed appearance, with kraals for the herds built
close b}^ and hedges of scrub and grass for protection
from the wind. Now and then we came across large
flocks of sheep, which in most cases belonged to the
Khan. The grazing was exceptionally rich, and the
plateau could support a very large herd of horses and
sheep, but the accessibility of the region hinders it
from being reserved as a private pasture for the Khan
and his subjects ; in consequence, Chinese herdsmen
from Barkul use it considerably.

The scenery of the northern side was varied by the
lake of Tur Kul, a small upland basin situated at a
height of 6,301 ft. Close by was Tomdun, a settlement
consisting of three yurts and two mud-houses, where we
rested for a few days owing to bad weather. Cold winds
and driving mists made us glad to get off the open plateau
into the warm yurts ; snow fell heavily, and when the
weather cleared we found that even the desert-spurs
of the Metshin-ola to the north were snow-clad. Tur
Kul was the water-table for a considerable drainage
from the ranges to the north and south. No water
from the mountains entered the lake above ground, but
it was margined by a wide border of soft, bogg}^ ground,
where much water oozed up and formed small springs
and streams. Large flocks of sheep and herds of cattle
fed on the excellent pasturage sustained by a perennial
watering, and many shepherd encampments were scat-
tered along the shores of the lake.

524 THE KARLIK TAGH

Approaching the lake after a four-mile ride from
Tomdun, we discovered that it was surrounded by a
treacherous salt-bog, and the water was the most saline
we had ever experienced. An analysis of this water from
the lagoons at the eastern end of Tur Kul showed that
it contained 34 per cent, of salt, and in comparison
I may mention that the water of the Dead Sea, — ^the
" most saline of all the world's important lakes," —
contains only 25 per cent. A thermometer boiled in
this water made the altitude of the lake at sea-level !
and it was not until we found fresh water some miles
to the east — ^where it first appeared above ground, that
we obtained a correct boiling-point reading for altitude.
The salinity, however, did not appear to affect the bird-
life. We chanced to be there, on the first occasion,
during a spell of bad, stormy weather, when the lake
was alive with myriads of wild-fowl, which had sought
refuge there from the more exposed water of Bar Kul.
Wild swans, geese, sheldrake, mallard, teal, and pintail
were constantly on the move between the salt lake and
the fresh-water marshes, from which they w^ere continu-
ally harried b}^ native hunters. When we attempted a
serious attack on the wild-fowl, a few days later, armed
with guns, and accompanied by beaters, we found the
lake absolutely deserted ! The natives said they came
but rarely, and only stayed for a night at the most,
for " the}/ did not like the water." I think, however,
they only come here under stress of bad weather and
depart again at the earliest moment, owing to their
cramped surroundings.

At Tomdun we divided forces, Miller travelling witli
the main caravan direct to the Barkul basin, whilst I
turned south in order to finish off my survey of the

THE KARLIK TAGH 525

southern side of the KarHk Tagh. Taking only two men
and a horse-load of necessaries, with a paper from the
Khan which enabled me to get a change of horses and
guides at everj^ village, I made a rapid survey of the
country between the Barkul passes and the sources of
the Bardash River.

South-west of Tomdun was the Belju Pass, the only
track that crosses the Karlik Tagh, and this at a con-
siderable height ; at the summit of close on 11,000 ft.,
snow-storms assailed me, hiding the views and hampering
my work. This pass led me down to the Koral Valley,
which, with its fine forests and open areas capable
of cultivation, and, consequently, its numerous villages,
formed one of the most important and beautiful valleys
in the Karlik Tagh. Its almost continuous line of culti-
vation, its hamlets, and the three villages of Temirty,
Koral, and Narin, gave the valley an appearance of
much industry. The Taghliks had cultivated almost
impregnable tracts of land high up the mountain-side,
by irrigating them with canals, the building of which
showed considerable ingenuity and labour. The hills
were subject to such denudation that the canals had
to be built up annually, and in some places the
water was carried for miles by aqueducts of hollowed
poplar-trunks. The largest centre of agriculture was at
Narin, the junction of the two valleys of the Koral and
Narin. Beyond Narin the sandstone border-ridges shut
off these highland villages from the plain.

From Koral a climb up a steep face of 3,000 ft. took
me across the ridge dividing this valley from the next
— the Edira, where I found other small settlements of
Taghliks farming in quiet seclusion the small patches
of land nature allowed them, and keeping a few cattle,

526 THE KARLIK TAGH

goats, and yaks. This upland valley, shut in com-
pletely by the impassable snow-fields above and by
the sandstone barrier below, was typical of the environ-
ment which has forced the Taghliks to follow an isolated,
hermit-like existence. Yet there was no feeling of sus-
picion nor exclusiveness amongst the natives when I
dropped unexpectedly into their villages from the ranges
above, or when I set up my plane-table on the roofs of
their houses ; they were merely amused and inquisitive,
and showed genuine hospitality.

A long ride up the Edira Valley and a climb
over a io,ooo-ft. transverse ridge led me again to the
Bardash, which, as described elsewhere, I explored to
its source ; then, turning back, I covered a wide extent
of country lying between my former track and the foot
of the range, passing from Bardash to Kara-kapchin,
Toruk, and Narin.

Connecting Kumul and Barkul are three tracks,
namely, the Kulluk, the Barkul, or Kosheti, and the
Chagan-bulak. Traffic mostly goes by way of the Barkul
Pass, which, according to Prjevalsky, is feasible for
wheeled traffic, but from Narin the nearest route is over
the Chagan-bulak, and thither my guides led me by the
worst of routes, which crossed and recrossed the Narin
River some twenty or twenty-five times, obliging us to
make several big detours up and along the hillsides in
order to avoid bad ground. Tou-shi, — a village com-
posed of half-yurt, half-house habitations, — supplied me
with a change of men and horses, and, on the evening
of April loth, the forests and deep snow-fields of the
Chagan-bulak Pass introduced me to the plateau-basin of
Barkul.

CHAPTER XVIII

BARKUL, THE BOGDO-OLA, AND ACROSS DZUNGARIA

The Barkul ^ basin is a topographical feature by itself,
having nothing to do with Karlik Tagh or Kumul. It
is a self-contained world, little influenced by the sur-
rounding regions, for mountains border the basin on the
south and deserts fringe it on the north ; it lies, moreover,
on the road to nowhere and has little through- traffic.
Barkul is neither arid Turkestan nor desert Dzungaria,
but a plateau-basin of such equable climate that men can
till the soil without the laborious construction of irri-
gation-canals, and can pasture their flocks without fear
of drought. It is not only the unique climatic condition
of the Barkul basin that causes us to consider it a separ-
ate district, but politically and ethnographically it is
divided from the Khanate of Kumul. For although in
the eastern portion may be found Taghlik settlements
subject to the Khan, the basin is really utilized and ruled
by the Chinese.

I shall not forget my first impression of the Barkul
uplands. After the horses had struggled, belly-deep,
through the snow on the northern side of the Chagan-
bulak Pass, and we had picked our way through the deeper
drifts which lay in the forest-belt down to the grassy
fiats below, I eventually reached the friendly shelter

^ I use the form Barkul for the town and Bar Kul for the lake, in
accordance with the Russian system.

II— 14 527

528 BARKUL

offered me by some Kumulik herders. It was evening,
and a wild sunset hung over the cloud-girt Barkul Moun-
tains ; beneath the mists a broad belt of forest showed,
and below this, a prairie-steppe swept down and across
the central basin until it rose again northwards into
the rough-sided, flat-topped ridge of Metshin-ola. The
prairies were dotted with cattle, droves of horses,
and flocks of sheep ; besides the black yurts of the
shepherds there were many small farmsteads which
gave an air of settlement to the pastoral scene. It was
an unusually animated scene for Central Asia ; for we
had at last found a happy valley free from the blight
of desiccation.

The next morning showed in clearer detail the im-
pressionist picture of the pre\dous evening. The upper
edge of the basin was good pasture-land, but above
the contour-line of 6,000 ft., — except in the immediate
neighbourhood of water, — the ground appeared to be
unsuitable for cultivation ; below this level, however,
abundant water oozed up in all directions. The drainage
from the surrounding mountains was chiefly below the
surface, the Barkul basin boasting only one river-bed,
the Irdi Khe, which carried a stream of water vary-
ing according to the season of the year ; the course
of this river-bed could be easily distinguished on account
of the numerous farms situated on its banks. Signs of
sedentary life were not restricted to the neighbourhood
of water, rains being sufficiently reliable to ensure the
raising of crops elsewhere ; small settlements of agri-
culturists were scattered over the whole floor of the
basin ; in fact, it seemed probable that the lands which
Chinese colonists were taking up for corn-growing would
eventually curtail the pasture-zone.

BARKUL 529

In strong contrast to the corn-lands and pastures
was an isolated group of high sand-dunes, lying at
the south-eastern corner of the basin, between the gaps
which lead through the surrounding mountain-wall to
Tur Kul and Kumul. This is the most remarkable
physical feature of the Barkul basin. It should be
understood that the entire flora of the basin is more or
less saturated with water, being a mountain-girt hollow
into which flows a constant drainage from the snow-
clad ranges on the south. Nowhere does the land
present any sign of being deprived of moisture, and
therefore it is not a desiccated area. Yet this peculiar,
miniature sand-desert suddenly makes its appearance
in the midst of fertility and pasture. The sand-dunes
cover only a small area of six or seven square miles, but
attain a great height and are a landmark from afar.
Neither in the sand-areas of Dzungaria, nor in Chinese
Turkestan, nor even in the great sand-belt of Trans-
caspia had we seen dunes of a similar height. Miller,
who spent some time in them, reckoned the maximum
height to be 400 ft. The dunes were very curiously
formed, a profile of their summits showing a sharp
angle, instead of the long-backed windward and steeply
inclined leeward side. In the centre of the dunes was
a typical " falj," or circular pit, which went down to
the floor of the plateau and supported vegetation in the
form of grass and scrub. Here, according to native
report, was a sand-buried Mongol village ; and, at night,
could be heard the crowing of cocks and the lowing of
cattle !

As I travelled westward, the panorama of the Barkul
Range spread itself out and showed a long, even ridge,
reaching to an average height of 11,000 ft. The dis-

530 BARKUL

tribution of the rainfall was emphasized by the type
of forest on the range ; in the east it was spruce and
larch, but gradually the spruce was eliminated, until at
a point south of Barkul the larch alone remained. The
maximum rainfall, judging by the distribution and type
of the forest, would be on the easternmost spurs of the
Barkul Range and around the head-waters of the Irdi
Khe River.

After joining Miller and the main caravan, which was
still in charge of the Beg, the transport being supplied
by subjects of the Khan from Narin Kur, we rode, on
April 13th, into the town of Barkul. From here we
despatched the Beg to Kumul, with many messages to
his master and a suitable present for himself. With
the help supplied by the Khan of Kumul, a large pro-
portion of the inconvenience and worry which hinder
real work on a journey had been eliminated ; we more
than appreciated the advantages we had been enjoying
when we suddenly found ourselves stranded in Barkul,
a town which boasted an imbecile Governor and an
exceptionally surly population. It was with real regret
that we parted with the Beg and the willing Taghliks,
who had shown us the many hidden valleys of their
mountain home.

In connexion with the adjacent pastures and corn-
lands the town of Barkul itself was an important centre.
Situated close under the mountains, where ample
forests gave a plentiful supply of fuel and from whence
the melting snows, or frequent rains, perennially satur-
ated the surrounding country and kept the pastures
fresh and green throughout the heat of summer, it con-
stituted the centre of trade for the whole district. Here
came the Kumulik shepherds and the Chinese farmers.

BARKUL ' 531

who found in the bazaars all they needed in the way
of foodstuffs and clothing. Barkul was little else but a
distributing centre for the surrounding district ; occa-
sional Mongols came in from the far north, especially
from the Mingyn Gobi, — between Barkul and the Altai,
and a few Chanto merchants from the great oases of the
Tarim basin ; but the ordinary aspect of a town situated
on a trade-route, with a moving population — entailing
much coming and going, was entirely absent from Barkul.
As a town it had little to recommend it, while its inhabi-
tants seemed sunk in a state of degeneracy to which it
would be hard to find an equal, even in Inner Asia. Its
complete seclusion may be responsible for this, even a
degraded Chinaman being influenced by popular opinion
and publicity.

Barkul does not even possess a fair reputation in
spite of its numerous temples and shrines, of which
there are said to be from eighty to a hundred. Its bad
reputation has probably been the cause for its having
been avoided by many travellers, this being a significant
fact in connexion with a region where towns and bazaars
are rare. Atkinson, when wandering with the Kirei
Kirghiz, was the first traveller to approach Barkul ; he
actually arrived within sight of the town and then turned
back into the desert. The Russian trading expedition
of 1872 was refused admittance, the Chinese Mandarins
saying that Barkul belonged to the province of Kansu,
whereas Mongolia alone was opened to Russian traders.
Potanin and his followers in 1876 camped within sight
of the town, but did not enter it. He sent men to
procure provisions, but even his envoy was not received
in a friendly manner. Prjevalsky, the next traveller,
passed close by without actually visiting the town.

532 BARKUL

although it lay right on his road to Kumul. In those
days, the disturbed conditions, owing to the Dungan
rebellion, may have caused travellers to pass it by ;
but even now, in these quiet times, one risks trouble by
entering the town.

We ourselves found Barkul a delightful locality,
with its altitude and fine air of 5,650 ft,, the pleasant
temperature warming us after the cold of the bleak,
northern plateau. After a rest, we inspected several
old temples, one of which, according to Piassetsky,
dates back three thousand years ; in the precincts of
this we found and took "squeezes " of the black stone
called Tzin-Chen-Bei, where are recorded the victories
of a Chinese (Mongol ?) general.

We then attempted to get transport westward ; but,
in spite of immense droves of horses running half wild
over the prairies and very large camel-herds in the
vicinity of the town, it took us some eight days before
we were able to come to an agreement, and even then
we had to " come down " to camels. Barkul is famous
for its horses ; for this reason we never imagmed it
possible that we should have to depend on camel-
transport in this land of horses. The reputation of the
Barkul broncos had been in no manner exaggerated ;
they were, indeed, the special characteristic of the
basin. We had been puzzled as to the kind of animal
which had given the name to " Bar Kul " or " wild-
animal lake." The neighbourhood possessed, it was true,
abundant animal and bird life ; we saw wild- fowl in-
numerable on the lake, and its western shore was the
haunt of troops of gazelle and droves of wild-asses ; but,
we now believe that the real "wild animals" of the
Barkul basin signify the great herds of unridable horses

BARKUL 533

which roam untamed over the steppes. These form
an Imperial Stud, and are said to number fifteen
thousand, the pick of which are transported yearly to
Pekin.

Barkul was eventually left behind on April 21st ; we
then wandered westward with seven camels and a few
horses and camped by the lake-side. Bar Kul receives
the surplus drainage of the basin, and has a fine sheet
of water surrounded by luxuriant meadows bordering
on saline marshes. The lake itself tasted slightly brack-
ish, the analysis showing only 3 per cent, of salt : con-
trary to the highland lake of Tur Kul, which was too
salt to freeze, this lake, in spite of the advanced season,
had large ice-floes at its northern end. Old strands here
showed themselves at a height of 10 ft. or 11 ft. above
the present level ; there appeared to be but one level
for summer and winter, — ^unlike Tur Kul, which showed
traces of much variation in level during the year.

Westwards the floor of the basin rose in a long, gentle
incline until it merged imperceptibly into the rolling
down-lands of the Tou-shui plateau, and thither we
hurried as fast as the counter-attraction of gazelle and
" kulon "-hunting alongside the track allowed us. This
westward slope of the basin was very dry and waterless
for twenty miles at a stretch, but, at this date, good
grass had already sprung up and the game from the
deserts of Eastern Dzungaria had sought out the early
grazing on these high plains for which man had little
use. Between Bar Kul and the Tou-shui main road we
saw only one Chinese guard-house and a couple of farms ;
a few others existed, it was said, nearer the main range
to the south, but, for the greater part, this region is
given over to wild-game and a few shepherds. We,

534 BARKUL

finally, reached Ta-shih-tu and connected up our route-
survey with the outgoing track.

In retracing our steps westwards we again traversed
the whole length of Southern Dzungaria, but, being
spring, the country presented a very different appearance
to what it did in midwinter. Grass and flowers now
carpeted the steppe in place of unbroken snow-fields,
and the country, which in January had seemed lifeless,
now appeared as the home of thriving colonists, pos-
sessing busy towns with much traffic.

Our journey now took the form of a hurried review
of the remaining portion of Dzungaria rather than a
detailed survey of an}^ one part. We visited various
localities for the sole purpose of investigating the fauna
of regions little known from a zoological point of view,
the results of these studies being described by Miller ;
while our itinerary included the traversing of those
parts of Dzungaria which are rarely visited. A con-
siderable portion of the information we obtained on the
return journey, after concluding the exploration of the
Karlik Tagh and Barkul regions, has been already
embodied in Chapter XIII, which dealt with Dzungaria
as a whole. The details of our experiences alone remain
to be described.

After Miller had successfully hunted that strange
animal — the Saiga antelope ; and a small, but most in-
structive collection of mammals had been formed on the
plains in the south-eastern corner of Dzungaria, where
the lowlands merge into higher Gobi, we marched again
into Guchen. May 5th saw us outfitting for a lateral
journey into the Bogdo-ola in order to visit its sacred
lake.

A description of Dzungaria, without reference to

THE SACRED MOUNTAIN 535

the Bogdo-ola, would be incomplete, for besides its geo-
graphical interest, the economic value of the lands at
its base, its close proximity to Urumchi — the capital,
and the incomparable beauty of its alpine region, the
Bogdo-ola is also the sacred mountain of the natives.

The towering summit of Bogdo-ola is the feature

of Southern Dzungaria. Although not attaining the

altitude of some peaks in the Tian Shan to the south

of Manas, it shows its height to great advantage, as it

rises abruptly out of the plain, and can be seen for an

immense distance from every point of the compass.

Manas, from where we first saw the peak, is a hundred

miles away ; we took its bearings from beyond Ta-shih-tu

at the western end of the Barkul Range, — about a

hundred and twenty miles to the east of the peak ;

while Prjevalsky has mentioned viewing it from the

banks of the Urungu River, at a distance of one hundred

and sixty miles. Such a pinnacle, standing alone on the

edge of the desert, creates wonder and astonishment

in the minds of the superstitious natives, who deem

it sacred, call it the " Ghost Mountain," and connect it

with mythical and mystical traditions. Its triple-crested

summit can worthily take its place as the Olympus of

Dzungaria.

The Bogdo-ola is typical of the southern borderland
of Dzungaria, and compares strongly with the less
inspiring northern border-ranges that we visited later
in the season. The range lies midway between the
Karlik Tagh group and the main Tian Shan, but it
belongs wholly to the latter mountain-system. Its
altitude is nothing unusual, being the forerunner of
mightier peaks to the west ; but no one who has seen
the Bogdo-ola can deny that it possesses a certain

536 BOGDO-OLA

character of its own, leaving an impression rarely given
by even higher summits.

This mountain first became known to geographers as
a volcano, and for some years it appeared as such on
the maps ; this report was, however, soon proved to
have originated from the Chinese myth, that fire and
smoke issued from it when the gods visited it once a
year ! There is, no doubt, an uncanny atmosphere
about the Bogdo-ola, for, when other ranges lie basking
in the sun, the summits of these peaks are certain to be
enveloped in mists and hidden in clouds.

Dull weather is very common, and this conserves
the snow which perpetually covers the summits of the
Bogdo ranges. Sudden storms of great violence fre-
quently occur, rain falls at intervals throughout the
summer months, and the weather is far more changeable
than in other localities in Central Asia. Strong winds,
blowing to a hurricane, are a feature of the region ; the
route leading southwards to Turfan being well known
for the violence of the gales which blow through the gap
in the mountains. Travelling by this route was said
to be dangerous, even carts being occasionally blown
over ; our Chinese informer added, however, that it was
** only Treasury carts that were blown over," one of
these, carrying bullion, having vanished altogether, the
wheels only being found ; its disappearance was attributed
to the wind, aptly named the " Ghost Wind " !

The uncertain climate is caused, it is said, by the
position of the high peaks towering above the low, hot
depression of Turfan. Whatever the reason may be,
these highlands are the scene of violent climatic changes
which overawe the natives and cause them to consider
it a suitable abode for " spirits," and therefore holy.

THE SACRED MOUNTAIN 537

The existence, also, of a romantic alpine lake, at an
altitude of 6,625 ft., — embosomed in the highest forests,
close under the silent glaciers and snow-fields, — ^forms a
scene of such beauty as to make it an object of worship
by a myth-loving race.

The Bogdo-ola was first explored by the brother-
travellers, Grum-Grjimailo, in 1889-90, who mapped the
essential features of the range, visited its sacred lake
and the glaciers above, but did not penetrate farther
into the alpine region. The maps they produced were
poor in detail, and are now proved to be inaccurate ;
but they stood for long as the only survey of the
Bogdo-ola. No other traveller came to this remark-
able mountain-group for eighteen years ; then Merz-
bacher, in 1908, concluded his exhaustive exploration
of the Tian Shan by a visit to the central portion of
the range. He thoroughly explored the main valley
of Bogdo-ola, made two ascents of about 13,000 ft.
on the northern edge of the central mass and achieved
a still higher ascent on the south ; he then crossed the
central part of the range from north to south by the
Miskan Pass. A great deal of scientific interest re-
garding the geological formation of the range and its
excessive glaciation resulted from Merzbacher's work,
but there still remains much detailed survey-work to
be accomplished. East of Long. 89° 40' the higher
portions of the range are quite unknown, and the
upper sources of the rivers on north and south have
never been visited.

The second week of May showed us, as we rode from
Guchen into the foot-hills at the base of the range, what
the Bogdo-ola can supply in the way of samples of climate.
The early days of May had been hot, the elms and

538 BOGDO-OLA

poplars were practical!}- in leaf, wheat was six inches
above the ground, and summer-birds were singing ;
but on the first night after leaving Guchen rain occurred,
and on the second a heavy snow-fall. Violent winds
got up at a few minutes' notice ; nature seemed to be
always in the throes of some great cyclonic disturb-
ance. We saw valleys which gave the impression of
being cleared by sudden storm-bursts ; the river-beds
were wide, although, at this season, they contained little
water ; but dead timber lying high and dry above the
ordinary- water-level, and great log-jams in the streams,
were suggestive of the floods that occur so frequently.

A sparse population of farmers and nomads lived on
the lower slopes, but the main valle}^ which drained
from the sacred lake, — although a smiling land of
grass and flowers, where streamlets ran beneath the
chequered shade of elm and willow groves,— remained
untenanted, a reserve too holy for the use of man. A
day's march takes the pilgrim up the length of this
silent valley, and through a frowning gorge, beyond
which he will find himself confronted b\' a great barrier
entirely blocking the valle}'. This wall of moraine de-
posits, which has dammed the valley and caused the
formation of the Bogdo-ola lake above it, was the most
perfect I had ever seen. From below it looked almost
artificial, with its smooth, unbroken slope and level top.
Grass and forest covered it in part, and here and there
water, draining through from the lake beyond, burst
out and formed cascades down the bank.

On reaching the top of the barrier w^e came suddenly
into \dew of the long-hidden lake and of the snow-
peaks which form its background. Small wonder that
the pious natives considered this region sacred and

THE SACRED MOUNTAIN 539

guarded it from the profanity of man ; it was a pleasure
we keenly appreciated to be able to enjoy its beauty,
undisturbed by the presence of other mortals, with
the exception of the aged priests who dwelt in the
temples surrounding the lake. Strangers were rarely
permitted, and nomads were never allowed to disturb
the peaceful surroundings. The neighbouring pastures
grew rank and wild ; and the wild-game resorted here
in numbers from the hard-hunted valleys beyond the
sacred precincts.

A previous explorer relates that he found a notice
put up near the lake, saying : " It is forbidden, under
penalty of instant death, to violate the tranquillity of
this holy land. There must be not only no shooting and
no tree-cutting, but cattle may not even be pastured
here, that they may not trample underfoot the herbage
belonging to God's creatures."

In an amphitheatre of steep-forested slopes lay the
lake, tucked in close under the highest summits, backed
by a world of snow and ice. Merzbacher called it "the
pearl of the Eastern Tian Shan," and I think it would
be hard to find an alpine lake having so perfect a
setting as the Bogdo-ola. Turquoise-blue lakes, pine
forests, and snow backgrounds are not uncommon, but
the presence of quaint Chinese temples picturesquely
perched on the steep hill-sides and mirrored in the lake
added greatly to the effect ; as did, also, the sound of
muffled drums and deep-noted horns at sunset.

The colony of priests who lived up there in isolated
temples spent a life of dull monotony. In bare cells,
existing on bread and water, cut off from the outside
world, and never returning to it, they might well be
•described as ha\dng to "live on air and scener}^" They

540 BOGDO-OLA

had no intercourse with their fellow-men, and did no
work ; even their bread was made in the next valley
and brought to them at intervals. One temple was
built in such a position as to be unapproachable from
the land side ; thus giving its inmates the additional
advantage of being able to shut themselves off even
from other priests, for there was only one boat. The
priests protected animal life, and were greatly con-
cerned at hearing the reports of my collecting-gun ; but
on learning that I was shooting only small birds, and
not the deer, they were quite satisfied.

Turning to the purely topographical side of the
Bogdo-ola, the range is composed of a single main ridge
running, on the whole, due east and west, but in detail
bending and varying the direction from east to south-
east. The main ridge has a uniform altitude averaging
15,000 ft., which drops off in a sharp decline towards the
Dzungarian plains on the north and the Turfan depression
on the south. The main ridge is very steep and retains
its altitude with such persistency that it can only be
crossed in a few places. Out of this 15,000-ft. wall rises
another 5,000-ft. block, formed by three distinct peaks,
which attain a maximum altitude of over 20,000 ft.
These virgin peaks remain unclimbed, but Merzbacher's
clinometer reckonings, which he considers fairly accurate,
make the east peak 21,356 ft., the central peak 21,240 ft.,
and the west peak 20,976 ft. The glaciation of this so-
called "secondary chain" is unusually extensive, and
the traces of the diluvial ice-age are remarkably de-
veloped. The glaciers, according to Merzbacher, are
more numerous on the northern than on the southern
slopes ; on the other hand, the largest glaciers are to
be found on the south. The largest glacier he measured

ACROSS DZUNGARIA 541

on the north is three or four miles, and that on the
south six or seven miles in length. All are in a state
of retreat, more especially those on the southern side.
This glaciated chain extends over a distance of 145 miles.

It was with reluctance that we left the beautiful
Bogdo-ola and started on the stage of our journey which
led us across the hot, monotonous plains of Central Dzun-
garia. Passing again through Urumchi and on to Manas,
we could well have continued our route by the main road
which crosses the plain between Shi-Kho and Chuguchak ;
but, in order to obtain an idea of the heart of the land,
we determined to follow a line north from Manas. The
main route is well known ; it crosses a low-lying desert -
belt, and is remarkable at this season onh^ for heat and
mosquitoes ; there is little information to be obtained
and few physical features to be studied. By going
north from Manas, however, and following the Manas
River, we hoped to arrive at our goal, the Jair and
Barlik Ranges, by a less-known and more interesting
route.

The Manas is the chief river of Southern Dzungaria ;
this river alone, of the countless streams which descend
into the plains from the snow-clad ranges, forms a water-
way of sufficient size to outlive the toll that is taken of its
water in the irrigated area, and to continue to flow on, — a.
silent, sluggish stream, destined to form many mires and
swamps before finally evaporating. The course of the
Manas River suggests the most natural route northwards
across the arid plains ; and in time to come, when the
region is more fully developed, this will no doubt become
a highway able to compete with the present Shi-Kho
road ; for it will have not only the advantage of a better
water-supply, but will also tap the traffic of a richer

542 ACROSS DZUNGARIA

country. At present both the Manas River and the
highway afforded by its banks are wasted.

The Manas River is a feature of immense importance
in a land so barren ; this is proved by the fact that
no other practical route leads across Dzungaria to the
east, the Chinese having taken advantage of the oppor-
tunities it offers by planning a route which should
connect their capital with the projected new city of
Sharasume, or Altai ; it also represents the shortest and
most direct road to the frontier town of Chuguchak
as well as to the important trade-centre of Zaisan. The
only signs we found of the existence of communication
between north and south by this route were a caravan
of a hundred bullock-carts, laden with hides, bound for
Chuguchak, which we passed on the road a few days
north of Manas ; and a line of telegraph-poles lying
beside the track in readiness for the line to be carried
northwards.

Leaving Manas with a light caravan, we travelled
along the east bank of the river. Although, at first,
a fast-flowing river, many channels running in over
shingly beds, it soon degenerated into a sluggish stream
winding its way between mud- banks and bordered by
jungle, swamp, or rice-fields. The farther north the
smaller and less frequent were the patches of culti-
vation. Now we passed through the fields of Chinese
colonists, and now through sand-dunes alternated by
marsh or forests of dwarf oak and poplar, which
formed the haunt of stags, pigs, and the small Central
Asian tiger. There were many varieties of scenery and
changes of weather ; thunder-storms broke over us,
and rain fell in such quantities that the passage of
the baggage-horses across the quagmire, into which the

ACROSS DZUNGARIA 543

plain was transformed, became a matter of difficulty ;
later on, the great heat and the ferocity of the mos-
quitoes reminded one of the tropics. On the third day
we found ourselves wandering amongst the sand-dunes
which not only surged up to the very edge of the river,
but even changed its course, when the winds were
sufficiently violent to move the sands. In hollows
amongst the dunes were lakes teeming with bird-life,
such as ducks, waders, terns, and gulls ; and even here
small patches of suitable ground were utilized for corn-
growing.

The scenery of the central plains, although monoton-
ous and featureless in itself, was always relieved by the
panorama which the giant Tian Shan offered until the
northern ranges came into view. From this outlying
point could be seen the Celestial Mountains, with an
unbroken snow-line of about two hundred miles in
length, but to the north there was either nothing, or
splendour of colour, as the case might be, whether the
day were hazy with loess-laden winds or calm and
clear. Mirages often shimmered in the distance with
such reality and persistency that one could easily
forgive the mistakes, made on even recent maps, which
placed an imaginary Ayar Nor lake in a desert we
actually passed across and an extensive Kizil-bashi Nor
to the north-east, where the only water-surface is the
small lake of Telli Nor with a few salt marshes.

By slow and tedious marches, often losing the track,
and experiencing long delays caused by guides who did
not appear to know the way to the next village, we
finally arrived at an easy ford and crossed over to the
western bank of the Manas River. The vagueness of
the country ahead of us, and the difficulty of obtaining

II— 15

544 ACROSS DZUNGARIA

information, obliged us to trust a guide to conduct us to
a village called Sa-veen. When, after a long, hot trek,
with much wandering amongst bogs, jungles, and rice-
fields, we eventually arrived there, we appeared to be
in altogether the wrong direction. We found travelling
in a straight line to be impossible, and moving without
a guide in such a country to be folly, so, after resting the
horses for a day and bribing a native of Sa-veen, — who
appeared to be so well off, owing to returns from rice-
culture, that he had no time for anything else but
gambling, — we moved westwards, hoping some day to
come within sight of the Jair Mountains.

On leaving the vegetation-zone of the Manas River
barren, open steppe surrounded us ; yet, in spite of the
apparent aridity and the easy nature of the country,
we experienced considerable difficulty in our attempt
to cross these plains. The nature of the ground was,
over large areas, an expanse of salt-encrusted, friable
earth ; at every step the outer crust broke through, and
we sank deep into the soft, dusty earth beneath. The
fatigue thus occasioned made it most tedious for man
and beast ; whether wet or dry these soft, salty plains
formed obstacles of no small difficulty. Where water
approached the surface, dangerously soft ground bogged
the horses and made progress slow. It was almost
impossible to distinguish between the dry, saline earth
and the bog, for both were dry on the top, and for this
reason we repeatedly fell foul of them. The horses
went down like ninepins when the dry crust proved to
hide treacherous ground ; then they had to be unloaded,
pulled out of the soft, sticky bog, and loaded again ;
then the bog would be tried in another direction, —
with the same result of muddy horses and wet baggage.

-B-ftiir^(Ail!ill!i^

5^ 1— .V

'*'4»*j Ml —

THE SALT-ENCRUSTED PLAINS OF CENTRAL DZUNGARIA

DEEP-CUT RAVINES IN THE DZUNGARIAN PLAINS.

544]

ACROSS DZUNGARIA 545

On one occasion we actually had to unload and un-
saddle the horses, to spread all the felts we possessed on
the soft bog, and to lead the animals and carry the
baggage over them to firmer ground.

Travelling transversely to the water-courses, as we
were now doing, entailed heart-breaking detours in order
to cross the deep-cut gorges which had been carved
out by the streams, when once a year — in spring — the
melting snows sent down from the lofty border-ranges
a flood of useless water. The plain, as a whole, looked
easy-going and level, but was in reality seamed with
sheer-sided trenches, the high, earthy banks of which
were difficult obstacles to negotiate. Their existence
was not realized until the lip of a nullah was reached;
then a way had to be found for the baggage-horses to
descend into a bottom choked with a jungle of scrub,
tall reeds, poplar, and wild olive; tearing our way
through the jungle we were involved in another climb
up the opposite cliff. The baggage, as often as not,
came off on the descent, and, being once more loaded
up, slipped again on the ascent — that is to say, when
we succeeded in finding a possible crossing ; more often
we were compelled to follow the brink of the ravines
for a long way and lead the caravan by an easier road.

In spite of the jungle-choked ravines and bogs, we
sometimes incurred the risk of a shortage of water. The
xavines were often dry, although they had an inviting
appearance of luxuriant growth ; while the bogs were
merely formed by the percolating up of brackish water.
The dry plain drank up the drainage from the mountains
and quickly swallowed all rain that fell, yet at this season
chance pools of rain-water might be found, as we were
once fortunate enough to discover, when, at the end of a

546 ACROSS DZUNGARIA

long daj^'s trek, the line of vegetation for which we had
aimed was found to be dried up and we were in danger
of a waterless camp. On that occasion the dogs drew
our attention to a pool of rain-water lying some way off
the track, and we camped close by. Water did not
necessarily mean grazing, for the following morning
we found that all the horses had strayed far and wide
in search of grass ; we thus found ourselves in the
predicament of being seven men and eight horse-loads
of baggage dumped in mid-desert, with a small and
rapidly drying pool of rain-water to depend upon ! All
that day and the following night the men scouted the
country for the missing animals — no easy matter in a
flat plain covered with lo-ft.-high saxaul and tamarisk
scrub. Eventually eleven were secured out of sixteen,
and, giving up the others as lost, we moved on, just
as our now very muddy and much diminished rain-pool
was drying up.

After some eight days in the desert, although endea-
vouring to keep a line towards the north-west, one obstacle
after another turned us unwillingly towards the west
and south-west, until we actually reached the outer
fringe of the cultivation along the Kutun River which
waters Shi-Kho. Even then we should have struck
northwards along a track which led in that direction
had not our guide decamped, tempted by our proximity
to the Shi-Kho bazaars ; we had therefore to follow suit.

These two weeks spent in wandering over the plain,
although trying and disappointing in that we had been
thwarted in carrying out our plan, were not wasted.
We had learnt much of the complex character of Central
Dzungaria, which otherwise would have remained a
blank to us.

ACROSS DZUNGARIA 547

From Shi-Kho, with a fresh caravan, we journeyed
northwards by the main road which leads to Chuguchak,
and, by doing so, experienced much we had escaped
during the winter's trek along the high-road, namely, the
plunging through acres of mud caused by over-flowing
canals, the crossing of countless unbridged dykes, and
the putting up at night in places which were literally
cesspools of filth ; all of which had been too hard frozen
in the winter to be either a hindrance or an offence. A
few marches took us out of the low, hot basin to rising
ground ; once off the floor of the plain we approached
happier and pleasanter lands and at length reached
the excellent pastures of the Maili highlands, the first
spurs of the northern border-range.

CHAPTER XIX

SPORT IN THE HIGHLANDS OF DZUNGARIA
By J. H. Miller

The middle of June found us once more among the
mountains, revelling in the balmy breezes that ruffled
the flower-studded grass of the Barlik-Maili Range. Life
was again made enjoyable, and we had a further proof
of the complex nature of Central Asia, in that, in two
short marches we had risen from the enervating, furnace-
like heat of the insect-infested plains, to a restful, green
land of bubbling brooks and matchless pasture. Wisps
of smoke hanging lazily in the air, and the presence of
numerous flocks and herds added to the peacefulness
of the surroundings, and proclaimed the presence of
large Kirei encampments. The Turki words maili (fat)
and barlik (everything) give the best idea of how this
region appeals to the nomads, for it is indeed a ** fat "
land, possessing everything which the heart of a herds-
man could desire.

The chance of procuring specimens of that rare sheep
— Ovis sairensis — lured us to this region, but our quest
was tantalizing and unsuccessful. The range of this
sheep, which was first discovered by Mr. St. George
Littledale in the Sair, or Jair, Mountains at the eastern
end of the Tarbagatai, and south-east of Lake Zaisan,

extends southwards through the Urkashar and other

548

SPORT IN THE HIGHLANDS 549

small ranges as far as the Maili-Barlik group. This is
also its eastern limit. How far its range extends west-
wards along the Tarbagatai seems to be imperfectly
known. Wild-sheep exist in the low mountains to the
north of Balkash, but whether they are Ovis sairensis
or Ovis nigrimontana is a question which requires in-
vestigating.

The head of the river Kosho, which divides the
Barlik from the Maili, runs through a broad, grassy upland,
thickly dotted with ancient burial-mounds. It is here
that the Chief of the Western Kirei had his headquarters.

Early one afternoon, under the guidance of a herds-
man, we reached his residence, and lost no time in paying
our respects.

Instead of the usual picturesque group of yurts we
found ourselves confronted by a high, mud-built en-
closure, which had a formidable iron door. Inside the
walls was a low building of Russian type, containing
the living rooms and a store-room. Most of the re-
maining space was occupied by two large yurts, used
for the kitchen and servants' quarters.

The great man and his family received us at the
entrance to his house. It was with the utmost difficulty
that we maintained a dignified demeanour, for the great-
ness of his position had spread to his person in an alarming
degree. He must have weighed a clear twenty stone,
and his corpulency was accentuated by a voluminous
Kirghiz costume. His first wife ran him pretty close,
and his sons and daughters showed great promise.

Tea and sweetmeats were placed before us in a room
gaudily decorated with carpets, — some of them old and
good, — many-hued tin boxes, and trashy goods from the
Chuguchak bazaar. Somehow the whitewashed room

550 DZUNGARIA

did not suit either the occupants or their belongings.
The smoky interior of a yurt would have been much
more appropriate. The old Chief was decidedly sus-
picious of us at first, and laughed at the idea that we
wanted to shoot wild-sheep ; he undoubtedly put us
down as spies. But when we had produced our Chinese
passports, and had proved to him our acquaintance with
the Russian Consuls of both Chuguchak and Kulja, he
began to look at us in a more friendly light.

Like so many of these frontier nomad chiefs, though
a Chinese subject, he was thoroughly in with the Rus-
sians, so as to be on the safe side whichever way the
cat jumped.

It was hard to believe that this man had, in spite of
his proportions, made the pilgrimage to Mecca, three
years previously, accompanied by his wife. They had
travelled by horse and boat to Omsk, and from there by
train to Odessa. He dwelt on the overcrowding of the
boats, saying that " they were packed like sheep at a
shearing." While undergoing a lengthy quarantine at
Tebuk, on the Mecca railway, fifteen out of their party
of forty had died, probably from cholera. How foreign
to the heart of the lazy, space-loving Central Asian
nomad must have been the crowding, hurry, and
bustle of train and boat travelling ! But it was all
looked upon as martyrdom for the cause, and submitted
to without a murmur — a striking proof of the hold
Mohammedanism has over its most outlying believers.

Before we left we had quite made friends with our
host, and had the satisfaction of hearing him order men
and horses for our use.

From our camp we looked up to the jagged crest of
the Barlik, only a day's march to the north. It is

SPORT IN THE HIGHLANDS 551

the one well-defined ridge in this area of mountains.
Both the north and the south slopes are exceedingly-
steep, especially the former, where precipitous cliffs drop
into extensive forests. The grazing is of the best, and
large numbers of yurts scattered over the lower slopes
account, in no small degree, for the scarcity of game.
I shall not weary the reader with an account of the
strenuous days spent in searching for those scarce and
elusive sheep ; only one small band of ewes and three
yearling rams were sighted. A few ibex live a nervous
existence among the crags, and wapiti, roe, and bear
are said to frequent the forests. In spite of the absence
of sport, however, we spent an enjoyable time camping
in those emerald valleys of knee-high grass, or scrambling
among the higher slopes, carpeted with that short,
tufty variety of grass so beloved by mountain game.
On the boggy patches below the snow-drifts yellow and
purple pansies, gentians, poppies, and other flowers
grew in profusion. Marmots and numerous varieties of
smaller rodents were almost everywhere in great numbers,
enabling Carruthers to add considerably to his collection.
Before moving into the Borotala we spent two days
in hunting on the Western Maih plateau, almost over-
looking the Dzungarian Gate. This plateau is formed of
innumerable small hills and hollows, the latter being of
a very uniform height, — something like a sheet of corru-
gated iron, except that, instead of being parallel, they
were jumbled up in hopeless confusion. There were no
commanding positions for spying ; so all we could do
was to ride along on the chance of coming upon game.
One morning, while turning a corner in this tantalizing
country, I came face to face with the only " respectable "
ram we saw the whole time, but he was out of sight

552 DZUNGARIA

before the rifle could be brought to bear. Several more
sheep were sighted in this way, but all were ewes or very
young rams. We each killed one of the latter for its
skin, so as to have something to show for our labour.
I cannot recommend any sportsman, desirous of securing
a specimen of this sheep, to visit this southern limit of
their range ; farther north they may be more plentiful.

A long reach down through waterless, barren gorges,
took us to a small spring on the edge of the plain,
which was crossed five miles north of Ebi Nor. This
huge expanse of water, lying only 700 ft. above sea-
level, shimmered like a sheet of silver in the clear
atmosphere. We sighted large numbers of gazelle,
and three saiga here ; but hunting on the march is un-
satisfactory, and we did no good with them.

Reaching the Kizil Tagh (red mountains), we once
again struck the road which we had trodden nine
months before on our way from Chuguchak to Kulja.
Now that we were marching by day, our two dogs felt
the heat terribly ; being so close to the ground, they
received the reflected heat from the parched earth in
addition to the direct rays of the sun. It was pitiful
to see them rushing to every little bush we passed to dig
madly at the ground in search of shade, or walking in
the shadow cast by the horses. We often gave them
water out of the rims of our felt hats, but that was only
effective for a short time. In the cool of the evening
they were quite happy again, playing about and hunting
desert-rats.

For two days we rested on the banks of the Borotala
close to a small Chanto village, which possessed a small
bazaar, where we could replenish stores with all necessi-
ties. A group of gnarled poplars afforded ample pro-

SPORT IN THE HIGHLANDS 553

tection from the fierce rays of the sun, and a shady
backwater enabled us, by bathing, to rid ourselves of
the dust of the desert.

We were now on the threshold of a country which,
from the sporting point of view, was completely un-
explored, and our hopes ran high as to what might be
ahead. Not much could be learnt from the industrious,
stay-at-home Chantos, but we hoped to get all the infor-
mation we wanted as to the sporting possibilities from the
Charkhar Mongols, who inhabited the region to the
west, so we decided to make for the headquarters of the
tribe. On the first day's march up the river we must
have passed quite three hundred yurts, with their atten-
dant flocks and herds grazing on the lush grass that
grew among the timber that fringed the river. This
fringe of trees and scrub, though narrow, is so thick and
interlaced as to be almost impenetrable in places ; it
is largely composed of a thorny bush, which in winter is
covered with golden clusters of small berries, the favourite
food of the pheasants which abound in these jungles.
When we crossed the Lower Borotala, in November, on
our way to Kulja, we shot several, but during the
summer they are rarely seen amongst the dense vegetation.

Allowing our caravan to pass the aoul ^ of the Amban
of the Lower Borotala without halting, we paid a flying
visit to his wife, who was in charge, the Amban himself
being away in Sweeting on business.

His spouse received us with true nomadic hospitality.
In the cool of her gorgeous snow-white yurt we were
refreshed with tea and delicious cream made into the
shape and consistency of a pancake, which rivalled
in excellence the best Devonshire.

^ Village of yurts.

554 DZUNGARIA

The costume of a well-to-do Kalmuk ^ woman is very-
striking. A long blue and red gown, generally un-
girded at the waist, reaches almost to her feet, and
above this she wears a short, zouave-shaped jacket, of
the same colours, heavily embroidered. Ample sleeves
cover her hands, and have to be continually hitched
back, as they impede her in her household occupations.
Long and heavy plaits hang down over each breast,
generally encased in cloth covers, to protect the clothing
from the mutton-fat with which the hair is covered.
Their usual headdress is dark blue, with an upturned
brim, very Chinese in appearance. Underneath this is
often worn a coral-covered skull-cap. Their ears, fingers,
and hair are always decorated with heavy silver and
coral rings, and their brooches are often of beautiful
workmanship.

On the second night from leaving the village, after
a long, gradual ascent from the river, we reached, at
dark, the camp of the Amban of the Upper Borotala
tucked away under the very foot of the Ala-tau, which
loomed mysteriously above us. Much barking heralded
our arrival, while flashes of light showed us the men
hurrying out to assist us in unpacking the loads and
pitching camp.

On the following morning a brightly clad group
with the Amban at its head, was drawn up to receive us
outside the ceremonial yurt. We were ushered in with
much hand-shaking and bowing, and had bowls of that
most abominable of drinks, arak, placed before us. This
spirit, distilled from milk, is, when kept, exceedingly
intoxicating. The bowls in which it was served were

^ Used as a general term for all western Mongols.
* The Kho-ching section of the Charkhars.

SPORT IN THE HIGHLANDS 555

much more pleasing than the drink itself, being carved
from knots of walnut-wood, and lined with Chinese
" shoe " silver. When darkened with age, they are
exceedingly handsome. They were said to have been
brought all the way from Lhasa by pilgrims, who pre-
sented them to their Chiefs. The Chieftain of the Charkhars
was remarkably impressive in appearance, with a hard,
strong, imperturbable countenance. He was the sort
of man one would picture as one of the generals of
Jenghis Khan.

The view from this camp on the slopes of the Ala-tau
was one of remarkable extent and impressiveness ; the
clearness of the atmosphere was such as is only met
with in these dry, elevated regions. At our feet the
ground dropped gradually to the Borotala River, which
ran like a narrow green band through the khaki-coloured
plain, losing itself in a broad belt of scrub and cultivation
in the direction of Ebi Nor. Far beyond, filling up
the whole of the southern horizon, stretched the great
mass of the Tian Shan, from the Talki Pass to the colossal
peaks above Manas. At that distance it seemed to
rise perpendicularly from the plains, a line of glittering
peaks above a dark base. But it was to the west, up
Borotala, that we looked with greatest interest, for
there lay the unknown.

On leaving this camp we experienced one of those
exasperating " starts " that are the curse of caravan-
travelling ; there are few things more trying to the
temper and patience than the first day with a new
caravan. It was not till midday that the horses began
to dribble in by ones and twos, and then the saddles
and gear were found to be deficient. Lastly, the men
who were going with us thought fit to celebrate the

556 DZUNGARIA

occasion with a final carouse, so that, when they did
at last turn up, they were mostly incapable.

The replies to our questions as to the sporting possi-
bilities of our venture were, on the whole, satisfactory;
but long experience had taught us not to put too much
trust in native report. The natives always say what
they think will please. " Gayeek tolla " (plenty of game)
is the invariable reply, whatever the true facts may be,
from Stamboul to the Altai.

Two marches along the foot of the mountains, crossing
numerous boulder-strewn water-courses, and dodging
protruding buttresses, brought us to the Karaul, which
guards one of the few passes over the Ala-tau. In
1908 I had crossed this very pass on my way from the
Altai to Kulja, via Lepsinsk. The appearance of the
country had then struck me favourably, but a lengthy
programme and a short season had prevented investi-
gation.

With the exception of a small post of three men
farther up the valley, we had now left the last habitation
behind ; so we decided to move along slowly, hunting as
we went.

Carruthers and I agreed that he should have the
monopoly of ibex, since he had never yet secured a
specimen, whilst I had shot several good ones in the
Tian Shan ; and that the sheep were to be my portion,
he having shot them on the Aksai plateau.

The southern slopes of the Ala-tau drop very abruptly
into the valley ; they are steep shale and grassy slopes,
with protruding buttresses ; there are no foot-hills in
the proper sense of the word. The spruce-forest which
darkens the northern declivities is entirely absent here,
though the torrents that leap down from the snowy

SPORT IN THE HIGHLANDS 557

crests are fringed by thickets of willow, poplar, and much
rich grass.

We called a two days' halt in one of these delightful
spots, while we made a thorough exploration of the
surroundings. Carruthers ransacked the higher nullahs
for ibex, while I scoured the lower slopes in search of
rams. A female ibex and a ewe were shot for food,
also five wolves. In those two days J must have seen
not less than three hundred ewes and young, but not
a single ram.

Carruthers saw a few female ibex, and a stag with
fine horns, though, of course, still in velvet. Ibex ground
without any tree in sight is a curious place to see a stag ;
it had probably fled there for protection from the native
hunters, who at this season would be busy among the
northern forests.

All the wolves in the neighbourhood seemed to have
collected in the vicinity of this abundant meat-supply,
for I saw no less than fourteen in the two days. On
the first evening we surprised an old wolf and six well-
grown cubs on the prowl ; after watching them for some
time sniffing at marmot-holes, and playing on the hill-
side, I shot two of the cubs, whose fur, though short,
was in beautiful condition.

On the next morning, having crawled to the top of
a ridge quite close to our camp, I saw an enormous wolf
coming straight towards us up the opposite slope, evi-
dently hurrying home after a nocturnal foray. He
did not see us, so, allowing him to come within forty
yards, I bowled him over as he stopped for a moment to
look back over his shoulder. Not long after this, while
riding high up on the hillside, our attention was directed
by loud yaps and snarls to the valley below. It was a

558 DZUNG/.RIA

pretty sight upon which we looked down. Two old
grey wolves were lying on the soft turf, enjoying the
sun, while round and over them romped five jolly young-
sters, looking just like a lot of large collie pups. It
seemed rather heartless to break up this happy family
party, but, though wolves are frequently seen while
sheep hunting, one generally refrains from firing at
them for fear of disturbing nobler game, so that this was
a chance not to be missed. To approach them was easy,
a friendly ridge covering my descent ; but something
had frightened them, perhaps the Kalmuk had shown
himself on the slope above, for, on reaching a point
fifty yards from where they had been lying, I saw the
whole family slinking off at a good pace. Three shots,
however, accounted for one of the old ones and a
youngster.

Our horses showed the greatest fear of these wolf-
skins, and commenced to squeal and buck when they
were tied on to the saddles. One, which was ridden by
my Kalmuk, broke away with a half-tied-on skin flapping
round its legs ; luckily it kicked the obnoxious thing
clear after going a mile or so, or I doubt if we should
have seen it again.

We decided to make a long march up the valley
without stopping to hunt ; by so doing we hoped to
get beyond the ladies' quarters into the domain of their
lords and masters, for such large numbers of ewes meant
fine heads somewhere not far off.

At this time frequent severe thunderstorms swept
over us ; though unpleasant while they lasted, the cool,
clear atmosphere which they produced was an ample
compensation.

As we moved up the ever-narrowing valley, a few

SPORT IN THE HIGHLANDS 559

gazelle were sighted, but in absolutely unstalkable
positions. Here and there bleached sheep-heads lay
about ; they were very uniform in shape, unlike the
mixed types met with on the Yulduz, and in appear-
ance intermediate between ammon and poll. I shall
return to this subject later. Five days after leaving
the Kalmuk camp we pitched our tents close to the
river, where the valley narrows to such an extent that
the mountains rise almost directly from the river-bank.
In its western portion the Ala-tau is an imposing moun-
tain-mass, some of the jagged peaks that frowned down
upon us being a good 15,000 ft. in height. The view
to the south was blocked by the less imposing, round-
headed, shale-ridge which divides the Borotala from its
large tributary, the Urta Saryk. From each dark crest
grassy slopes with out-crops of rock and patches of shale,
deeply seamed with numerous small water-courses,
dropped towards our camp.

Just as the horses were about to be unloaded, a bear
with two cubs was sighted on a terrace across the river ;
they were only about four hundred yards away, and in
full view of the caravan. Thinking that we should be
sighted any moment, and forgetting what poor sight a
bear possesses, we hurriedly forded the river, and made
towards where we thought her to be, without stopping
to take our bearings. We were peering about, expecting
to come face to face with them every minute, when
suddenly a dark head and shoulders appeared for a
moment above a rise a hundred yards to our left. We
had hopelessly misjudged their position. Even now
we should probably have got her if the ground had
been favourable, but a hollow hid her from our view,
till they appeared again a good five hundred yards away.
II— 16

56o DZUNGARIA

I should be ashamed to say how many cartridges were
expended in the next minute or two. Even a musketry
instructor at Hythe would have marvelled at the rapidity
with which our bolts worked ! But, though dust was
spurting up all round that hurrying, shaggy figure, the
distance was too great, and she showed no signs of being
touched ; the last we saw of that trio was the old bear
looking defiantly back at us from a hill-top, waiting
for those two precious balls of fur which she had out-
paced in her flight. I should feel inclined to omit this
regrettable incident, were it not an excellent example of
what not to do under similar conditions. This bear was
unusually dark ; most of the skins we have seen in the
bazaars are of a browny yellow colour ; but she was
nearly black, and of large size.

Large piles of tezek and stone kraals proved that
herdsmen must visit this region in winter. During the
summer not a single Kalmuk dare venture into the
upper Borotala or Urta Saryk ; this is owing to their
fear of the Russian Kasaks from the north. These
freebooters from over the border lose no opportunity of
swooping down upon any outlying herds and shooting
down with impunity any Kalmuk who interferes. At any
rate, this was the tale we were told, and it is doubtless
true, though we gathered that the Kalmuks return the
compliment whenever a thoroughly safe opportunity
presents itself.

In the winter, when the northern passes are closed,
Kalmuk herdsmen overrun the upper Borotala and
Urta Saryk. In addition, considerable numbers of
Chinese Kasaks, who summer on the eastern side of
Sairam Nor, move into these more sheltered regions,
paying a considerable sum to the Ambans for the right

SPORT IN THE HIGHLANDS 561

to graze in their domains ; these Kasaks are of a very
low, degenerate stamp. This intermixing of the races
accounts for the fact that nearly all the Kalmuks can
talk Turki. On this first day in this new locality,
Carruthers took the ground across the river, while I
scoured the slopes to the north, and, as luck would have
it, he came upon numbers of rams, while I found a
large herd of ibex.

Leaving camp when the last of the stars were still
struggling against the first streaks of dawn, my hunter
and I zig-zagged up to a lofty, commanding position. I
dignify my companion with the title of " hunter " ; but
he and all our other Kalmuk followers were quite useless
in this respect, though they were thoroughly willing,
and helpful in their knowledge of the country. A herd
of a dozen buck-ibex were feeding on a crest some way
above us, showing up well against the sky. There
seemed to be one or two fair heads among them, so, after
ascertaining that they were thoroughly settled in their
present position, we left them undisturbed, and con-
tinued our search for rams.

A short way farther on we found nine rams.
Only one carried respectable horns, and I estimated them
to be short of fifty inches, but I determined to try for
him, as the meat would be acceptable any way, our
hungry crowd having already demolished the two beasts
so recently killed. While making this stalk, the rattle
of stones drew my attention to another lot of ten rams,
all strung out on a narrow sheep-track, crossing a steep
shale-slope above us. There was no mistaking the size
of one or two of those heads, but it was useless to attempt
to follow them up, as they were evidently thoroughly
alarmed ; led by a grizzled old fellow with fine curling

562 DZUNGARIA

horns, they plunged along over the shale, stopping
frequently to gaze down upon us. It was not till the
afternoon that we got on terms with the original herd,
and then bad shooting necessitated a stern chase before
the best ram was brought to bay ; it proved to be
only a small head of forty-seven inches, but the prospects
of soon getting better ones were very bright.

Carruthers had failed to find any ibex, but had come
across three bands of rams ; so the next day we ex-
changed ground, he going for my ibex, and I for his
sheep.

At the top of an outlying bluff, overlooking a likely
little valley, we settled down for a thorough " spying."
At our feet ran a small stream carrying the melting snow
from the drifts far above down to the Borotala ; from
each side of this short valley rose steep slopes, broken
into numerous small arms and hollows. Right at its
head, and just below the shale, two herds of rams
were to be seen feeding among some ancient grass-
covered moraines ; there were six in one lot, and eleven
in the other. We were too far off to tell their size, but
they were certainly worth a close inspection. Leading
our horses, we " screed " down to the valley bottom,
and were then disgusted to find that the wind (what
there was of it) was blowing straight up the hill. How-
ever, as there was no other approach, I decided to go
boldly on, trusting to local eddies favouring me higher up.

After riding only a short way, while still half a mile
from my objective, I left the man and horses, and pro-
ceeded on foot. Provided that the sheep were on the
right side of the valley, where I had last seen them, there
was just a chance that, by ascending the left, I might
yet approach unwinded. It was a very slow advance.

FLOWER-STREWN MEADOWS.

562

WILD-PIG, SHOT IN THE UPPER BOROTALA VALLEY.
Sus scrola nigripes.

SPORT IN THE HIGHLANDS 563

since, as it had been so long out of sight, there was no
knowing where the quarry might have moved to. Every
little vantage-point had to be crawled up to and cautiously
peered over. At last, the farther side of one small knoll
was all the dead ground that remained. It seemed
impossible that all those sheep could be concealed behind
that slight cover; but nothing must be left to chance
in this sort of hunting, and I continued to move slowly
forward. The wind was gently fanning my right cheek,
so all was safe in that direction. Suddenly the top of
a horn appeared ahead. Raising myself inch by inch, I
gazed down upon the six rams, which were lying
down and facing every direction but mine. Alas !
though they were only fifty yards off, not one carried
a head worth shooting ; they were all four or five year
olds. There was still just one portion of the slope
hidden from view, where the other lot must be, if they
had not cleared out ; so, wriggling back, I approached
this also from above. This time I was not so successful,
or perhaps the wind was less friendly, for that well-
known alarm- signal, a mixture of a grunt and a sneeze,
sounded before a single beast was visible. Hastily
swinging round into a sitting position, I saw the twelve
rams bunched together, and every head turned in
my direction.

Four legs kicking in the air answered the first shot.
Another whack, as they bolted, proclaimed that the
second bullet had found its billet ; luckily, the second
ram made straight down-hill, enabling me to finish
it off close to the horses, much to the gratification of the
voracious old Kalmuk.

One of these heads measured well, being 51 J in. in
length ; the other was a massive 49 in., but, one of its

564 DZUNGARIA

horns being very badly broken, it was useless as a trophy.
After assisting my companion to skin and cut up one
beast, and leaving him to deal with the other, I climbed
up to a spur which overlooked a fresh stretch of country.
This district was alive with game, a large herd of female
ibex and their young, and some small rams being
visible to the naked eye.

As we left the scene of our success, with the heads
slung over the Kalmuk's saddle, the vultures began to
assemble, for no meat is ever left to rot in a country
possessing such keen-eyed scavengers as these.

This was to prove one of those red-letter days when
everything goes right, and big-game hunting seems to
be the easiest thing in the world. After such a day
one is apt to push into the background and forget the
days of fruitless search or unsuccessful endeavour, when,
sometimes through faults of one's own, and sometimes
owing to sheer bad luck, one returns to camp, night after
night, with fatigue accentuated by failure.

It was still early in the afternoon, when, while riding
carelessly down a stony water-course, with thoughts of
camp and one of Pereira's savoury stews foremost in my
mind, a guttural "Tocta" from my companion banished
all such thoughts from me. The old fellow had already
dismounted and was pointing over the back of his horse
up a side- nullah we were passing at the time. " Tash,
gulja, bilmaida " (Rocks or rams, I don't know), was
his next remark. Spotting the grey smudges which had
caught his eye, soon seventeen rams were focussed
in the field of the telescope. They had evidently just
risen from their siesta, and were standing aimlessly about
while their leader decided in which direction they should
start grazing ; when he had made up his mind, he led

SPORT IN THE HIGHLANDS 565

them at a trot down-hill till they were lost in a fold of
the ground. The commencement of the evening meal
is quite one of the best times to approach sheep, as
they are then so engrossed with the early courses
that their usual precautions for safety are somewhat
relaxed.

I will not weary the reader with details of this stalk,
for to any one but a participator the account of one is
very much like the account of another. Suffice it to
say that, half an hour later, I was doing an uncomfortable
caterpillar-like slither on my back down a steep hill-
side towards a V-shaped hollow, into which the sheep
had disappeared.

Descending a smooth slope in this manner is an un-
satisfactory way of approaching game, because its slightly
convex formation alone conceals the hunter, and, when
the quarry does at last come into view, the recognition
is liable to be mutual. So it was in this case. A mass
of grey backs and curling horns suddenly appeared almost
straight below. At the same moment a head was turned
in my direction, and at the next the opposite hillside
seemed to be alive with flying sheep. There was
no time to waste deciding which was the best head,
though none of them were very small ; so, following that
sound hunter's motto, " When in doubt, shoot the leader,"
I had the satisfaction of seeing him pitch forward on to
his head, to the shot. A very similar reply answered
the next, and, as they stood for a second on the crest,
yet another received his death-blow, and came galloping
straight down the hill, falling dead on the very spot
which they had just left. The two best of these heads
measured 53 and 48 J in. respectively — very fair heads for
karelini, which I fancy do not average so big as the

566 DZUNGARIA

Uttledalei of the Tian Shan, though they occasionally
reach 60 in., as proved by a head picked up later.

While we were busy with our knives a terrific thunder-
storm, which had been brewing for hours, burst over us ;
the rain came down in torrents, and the thunder crashed
right over our heads.

With two heads slung over each of our saddles, and
the fifth held by my companion in front of him, not to
mention several dangling legs of mutton, we slowly made
our way towards camp.

The Borotala is never an easy river to cross late in
the day, being very rapid and full of boulders. Weighed
down as our horses were, we nearly came to grief several
times ; but these mountain-bred ponies never lose their
heads, and have a wonderful aptitude for recovering
themselves from a stumble, so they brought us through
safely. We were a tired and sodden, but contented
couple as we came in sight of the camp-fire gleaming
in the dusk.

I was ver}^ disappointed to find that Carruthers,
though he had killed what he considered the best, had
only secured a 43-in. head out of the herd of ibex, because
I had estimated several to be decidedly better than that.
If only they had been really big bucks, what a day it
would have been !

Our highest camp was at the juncture of the two
heads of the river, and only a few miles from the frontier.
A few roe-deer find shelter here among the patches
of low juniper on the hillsides and the dwarf willows
that fringe the stream-beds. Carruthers shot a very
pretty head with long, thin horns, while I secured two
wild boars, a few of which had also taken up their quarters
among the willows.

SPORT IN THE HIGHLANDS 567

We had hopes of this wild boar proving to be unde-
scribed, since no specimen has ever found its way to the
South Kensington Museum, although several have been
shot by sportsmen in the Tian Shan. On consulting
Mr. Oldfield Thomas on the subject, however, I learnt
that it had been described by Blandford from two speci-
mens procured during the Second Yarkand Mission. He
named it as a variety of the European wild boar, calling
it Sus scrofa nigripes, on account of its black legs
and feet.

While in this camp we received a visit from a Russian
Cossack of the frontier guard, accompanied by six
rascally-looking Kasaks, all armed with " Berdan "
rifles and belts of cartridges. There is little doubt that
he had received orders from his superiors, who were sure
to have heard about us, to look us up, and see what we
were doing so close to the frontier.

Our Kalmuks told us afterwards that, if thev had been
hy themselves, they would have been robbed, and prob-
ably severely beaten. There is no doubt that these
frontier police do nothing to check the border raiding,
and in many cases are hand in glove with the Kasaks.
While refreshing our unbidden guests with tea, we did
our best to pump them as to the sporting possibilities of
the northern slopes of the Ala-tau. The Russian in-
formed us that big ibex and rams, besides large numbers
of wapiti and bear, could all be obtained round his
hut, only a day's march over the divide, and extended
to us a cordial invitation, dwelling, as an extra induce-
ment, upon the excellent "Fransuski khleba" (French
bread) which his wife would bake for us. We thanked
him profusely, though we had not the slightest intention
of risking arrest by moving a yard over the frontier.

568 DZUNGARIA

As the Borotala had proved most unproductive of
big ibex, Carruthers decided to move on ahead into the
Urta Saryk, where they were said to be much more
plentiful, while I retraced my steps and hunted the
ground below the spot where the five rams had been
killed.

I spent a restful day in riding down-stream with the
caravan, through country already well hunted over,
little thinking what disheartening days lay ahead of me.
Leaving orders with Pereira to move along the foot of the
hills and to camp in the first large, lateral valley, I started
off with the same trust}^ old Kalmuk to hunt my way
thither by a higher route. The first little valley we en-
tered was full of rams. Three were lying down high up
to my right, eight more were feeding low down to the left
of the stream, while a large herd of some fifteen small
rams, were to be seen far up under the shale . Among the
eight was one that stood out from all the others. It took
much careful manoeuvring to dodge those three pairs of
watchful ej^es on the right, but, after a wet scramble up
the stream-bed, a spur hid them. Only three hundred
yards of easy ground now lay between me and that
" head of heads," which I already looked upon as mine,
when, happening to glance back in the direction of the
man and the horses, I was horrified to see hundreds of
cattle driven by several horsemen streaming out from
a side-nullah, and this in a country which I had con-
sidered to be absolutely free from such disturbances.

Of course, the rams had seen them before I had,
for, when they next appeared, they were a good four
hundred yards off, and going strong. Two impossible
shots only hastened their flight, those 6o-in. horns looking
larger the farther they retreated from me, and making

ROE-DEER AND KALMUK HUNTER.

568]

OVIS AMMON KARELINI.
In winter coat.

SPORT IN THE HIGHLANDS 569

me inclined to empty the remainder of the magazine in
the direction of the cause of all the trouble. I learnt
later that these cattle had been purchased by a Russian
merchant in Hi Valle}', and that he was driving them
by this short cut to some place on the northern side of
the Ala-tau.

Great numbers of derelict horns were seen that day.
They were all of a ver\' uniform type, quite as much
so, in fact, as are the ammon horns one sees in the Altai.
This is a great contrast to the various twists and thick-
nesses that are so noticeable in the Central Tian Shan,
particularly on the Yulduz plateau. The finest pair of
horns measured in the Borotala — and I taped a great
many — were: length 60J in., girth 16J in., and spread
38 in. My three best (shot) heads measured, in inches :

Length. Girth. Spread.

53 i6i 33|

51^ i5i 29

49 i6i —

The distribution of Ovis ammon karelini * stretches
from the north-east end of the Ala-tau Mountains, which
is their northern limit, westwards along the range to the
head of the Borotala, and from there eastwards along the
whole length of the northern declivities of the Tian Shan,
from Sairam Nor to the Karlik Tagh, which forms the
most easterly extremity of the range. They are found
throughout the Central and South-western Tian Shan
from the Eastern Yulduz as far as the Aksay and Atbashi
plateaux, for in the latter locality they were observed
by Carruthers during his visit to that region in 1908.
Throughout the whole of their northern and eastern

^ I am adhering to the nomenclature adopted by -Mr. Lydekker. See
Field, January i6th, 1909.

570 DZUNGARIA

distribution, which includes the Ala-tau, Borotala,
Northern and Eastern Tian Shan, only karelini are met
with. For instance, the horns seen in the Karlik Tagh,
right on the edge of the Gobi, were in every respect
similar to those of the Borotala. It is in the region of
the Manas- Yulduz divide that the puzzle commences,
for on the Yulduz littledalei are to be found on the
same ground with karelini and in almost equal num-
bers. I have been informed by an observant sportsman.
Colonel H. M. Biddulph, who recently visited that re-
gion, that in all probability a third, unnamed variet}/,
will be proved to exist. I will briefly describe these
three varieties in the hope that it may be of assistance
to sportsmen who contemplate visiting the Tian Shan,
besides being of interest to naturalists.

The first and most common variety is karelini, in
which the horns are more rounded in section than is
the case with poll, but only slightly more massive.
The twist of the horn is intermediate between typica
and the open type of poli, there being rarely any sign
of the great nip-in of the former and never any of the
openness of the latter. The average horn measurements
of a fully adult karelini are : length, 52 to 55in. ; girth,
15 to 16 in, ; and spread, 32 to 36 in. Colonel Biddulph
picked up a colossal karelini head close to the Narat
Pass on the Yulduz, in 1911. It measures : length, yof ;
girth, i6J- ; and spread, 46J in. Judging by the appear-
ance of this remarkable head, which rivals the largest
recorded head of poli, the sheep that carried it cannot
have died more than three years previously.

As a rule, sportsmen who visit the Tian Shan can only
spare a ver}/ limited time for going after sheep, owing to
the other species of game that claim their attention,

SPORT IN THE HIGHLANDS 571

and so visit only the most accessible localities. I am
convinced, however, that a systematic search among the
more inaccessible regions would reveal small lofty valleys,
tucked away among the peaks and glaciers, which no
native ever visits. Here would be found rams carrying
considerably larger heads than those recorded in Row-
land Ward's Records of Big Game (sixth edition) under
the heading of "littledalei." The jumble of mountains
round about the head-waters of the Manas River I con-
sider one of the most likely localities in this respect.

The other variety, littledalei, resembles the open
poli type in the twist of the horn, but is considerably
shorter in length, although exceeding it in girth. Average
length of fully adult ram 50 to 54 in., girth 16 to 17 in.,
and spread 44 to 48 in.

The third variety, which is as yet imperfectly known,
is apparently considerably rarer than the other two. It
approximates to the 0. a. hodgsoni, its chief character-
istics being great massiveness, short length, and narrow
spread. There is practically no second twist to the
horn. Colonel Biddulph, to whom I am indebted for
information respecting this third variety, measured
several heads in the Western Yulduz and found them to
average, length 40 to 50 in., girth 16 to 18 in., and spread
17 to 20 in. As this type of horn appears to differ just
as much from the other two as they do from one another,
it has every right to be considered a distinct variety ;
however, adult heads will have to be brought to England
for examination, before a definite decision can be arrived
at.

As to the question of body-measurements and colour-
variation, I am of the opinion that the karelini and
littledalei do not differ in any important respect, but

572 DZUNGARIA

that any slight variations are merely due to age and
seasonal changes.

I venture to suggest that if, at the next big-game
trophy exliil)ilion that is held in England, every one who
possesses sheep-heads from the Tian Shan and adjacent
ranges, would make an effort to lend them, they could
be groui)ed together and their respective characteristics
clearly shown.

I cannot, here, go as deeply as I should like into
the interesting but complex question of the wild-sheep of
Central Asia, but, having just touched upon the subject,
I must now return to the narrative.

While riding along disconsolately, early in the after-
noon, still smarting under our defeat of the morning,
we came upon a pair of sixty-inch horns lying in a shel-
tered hollow which was a perfect " Golgotha," where the
remains of dozens of mighty rams strewed the ground.
As this pair of horns was in almost perfect condition, I
decided to keep it. Soon afterwards, while continuing
our careless way towards camp, our attention was directed
sinmltaneously to a movement far up on the shale of the
divide.

There was no mistaking those graceful, sweeping
liorns, which looked many sizes too big for their owner.
It was our old friend of the morning, with his companions.
Though knowing full well that they were in an unapproach-
able position, the temptation to make one more effort to
secure that coveted trophy was irresistible. Telling my
companion to throw away the picked-up head, so as to
quicken our progress, we made a rapid detour, in the
hope of getting round and above them.

When our panting, steaming ponies had carried us
as far as it was advisable to take theui, 1 dismounted

SPORT IN THE HIGHLANDS 573

and continued on foot up that most heart-breaking of
obstacles, a steep shale-slope. I was plodding along
very much in the same condition as the ponies when a
shout from my man made me look back. Following the
direction of his outstretched arm, I realized what a
fool I had been to attempt to approach a herd of sheep
already thoroughly alarmed, for there on the snowdrift,
silhouetted against the sky, at the very top of the divide,
were those mobile gulja.

I had had enough of sheep-hunting for that day.

Without bothering to recover the discarded horns,
which had no interest for me now that the equally fine
pair on a living specimen had for the second time given
me the slip, we hurried down to the camp. A good
meal, followed by a pipe, and warm blankets, soon put
a very different complexion on affairs, and I regretted
not having at least a photograph to show of that fine
pair of horns.

As before, my trusty follower and the caravan bashi,
who alone knew the country thoroughly, arranged between
themselves the ground to which the camp should be
moved. As we started off once more in the crisp early
morning, the despondency of the previous evening had
given place to that thoroughly optimistic frame of mind
which is one of the chief requirements of a big-game
hunter, and alone enables the hardships and disappoint-
ments of this most fascinating of pursuits to be cheerfully
surmounted. Five herds of rams were seen that day,
numbering something like seventy beasts, but they had
all been thoroughly disturbed by the slowly moving herd
of cattle and noisy herdsmen, who had passed through
the very middle of this narrow strip of sheep ground,
causing them to retreat to their stronghold in the shale.

574 DZUNGARIA

Many hours were wasted in attempting to approach a
herd with some good heads in it, for when, after much
patient restraint, I had got them into a suitable position,
three insignificant beasts which had been lying hidden
gave the alarm and stampeded their betters.

As evening advanced, my old guide led the way
down to where he expected to find the camp ; but,
though we scoured the surrounding country and hunted
for tracks, not a trace could be found. Returning to
the high ground, two small tarns were visited, but with
the same result. It was by that time nearly dark, so,
discovering several large piles of tezek stacked like peat,
we decided to spend the night where we were. Judge
of our disgust when, after congratulating ourselves on
the prospect of a large fire, my match-box was found to
be empty, and my companion to be without the usual
flint and steel ! I am afraid that on this occasion I was
far from carrying out the theory of always being pre-
pared for a night out ; a lump of doughy bread, the
remains of lunch, alone constituted our food-supply.
The old Kalmuk, to whom such little inconveniencies as
this were of frequent occurrence, was quite content with
his morsel of bread, augmented with copious pinches of
nahs} I made myself as comfortable as I could on the
lee side of a pile of tezek, and, lying on a saddle-cloth with
a thick coat over me, I slept soundly till wakened by
the frost in the small hours of the morning.

I shall never forget the commencement of that day,
perched up as I was in those lonely surroundings without
a sound breaking the stillness ; even the munching of

^ Nahs is a form of snuff, made from a mixture of powdered tobacco
and the ash collected after burning a certain plant. It is not adminis-
tered through the nose, but scooped up on to the tongue from the palm
of the hand, and allowed to rest there while it slowly dissolves.

SPORT IN THE HIGHLANDS 575

the horses had ceased, and they stood with hanging
heads, satiated with a night's grazing on the short, rich
grass. A faint grey hght began to creep into the east ;
the stars disappeared slowly before its ever-increasing
strength ; the snowy summits turned from grey to a
delicate pink, and then hardened as that longed-for sun-
line crept down towards us ; and then, with a leap,
the great fiery ball rose clear of the hills and bathed us
in its welcome rays. Snow-cock began to chuckle round
us, and chats and snow-finches to flit from rock to rock.
Black specks far away on a skyline indicated a hungry
herd of sheep. Of all this wild life, the lazy, over-eaten
marmot alone remained curled up at the bottom of his
snug burrow, waiting for the sun to gain in power before
he ventured out. But the beauties of nature do not
compensate for the absence of breakfast, and we lost no
time in searching the surrounding country from a neigh-
bouring eminence. As no human being was within sight,
we decided to make straight for the Urta Saryk, since,
even if Carruthers' camp were difiicult to find, there
was a small Kalmuk post at which we could get food.
Four hours' riding took us off the plateau, down the well-
timbered valley to the main stream.

Here we fell in with some herdsmen, one of whom
we " pressed " as a guide. At four in the afternoon,
after fording the river, we came upon that welcome green
tent pitched among some pines, and lost no time in
putting ourselves outside a kettle of tea and pounds of
bread and meat.

A man was at once despatched to find our caravan ;

it turned up next day with a very anxious Pereira at its

head. We were never able to find out exactly who was

to blame in this matter, since each of the Kalmuks noisily

II — 17

576 DZUNGARIA

maintained that the other was at fault. However, Pereira
was not going to risk the culprit escaping, so he gave both
a mild beating.

We now moved slowly up the Urta Saryk in search
of ibex. In its central portion, this valley is a rough,
precipitous gorge, with a roaring torrent, full of boulders
and deep holes, rushing down it. On the south side a
heavy forest and on the north bare cliffs rise from the
very edge of the water. Here and there on the left
bank, between the foot of the cliffs and the river, are
narrow fiats, covered with timber and grass, which make
ideal camping-grounds. Leaving Carruthers encamped
in one of these places, with several likely ibex-nullahs
round it, I proceeded up-stream with two men and a pack-
horse to explore the valley to its head. Sometimes we
were scrambling along the hillside, and at others pushing
our way through the tangled growth by the river. We
" jumped " several roe-deer, and crossed some bear and
wapiti tracks. After we had passed a delightful little
waterfall, which hurled itself from the cliffs 200 ft.
above, straight into the river beneath, we found the
timber thinning, till only juniper and a club-shaped,
cactus-like plant covered the slopes.

Towards its head the valley widened considerably,
and formed a grassy fiat. Here we spent a night at a
native winter camping-ground ; which must be a cold,
bleak spot at that season ; and for this very reason the
snow would not lie deep, thus enabling the flocks to get
at the abundant grass.

The actual head of the valley is composed of small
glaciers and moraines. Among this wilderness we came
upon five ibex, none with horns of great size. To keep
the men in good cheer I killed one for its meat. During

SPORT IN THE HIGHLANDS 577

the late summer buck- ibex carry great quantities of fat,
which is highly prized by all the natives. All through
this hunting- trip our followers dried and salted great slabs
of both ibex and sheep meat to take home withthem.

Our return journey was made on the north side of
the valley, along a broad, grassy shelf below the main
ridge and above the cliffs that drop to the river. Several
herds of ibex were seen here, some of females and others
of bucks, feeding on the smooth, grassy ledge above the
cliffs, like rabbits outside a cover at home. One of
these herds was among the largest I have ever seen ; it
was composed of over a hundred bucks. Most of them
were small, but several carried horns which appeared to
me to measure not less than 50 in., though I got only
a hurried glance at them. A rough descent brought us
down to the river and camp. The welcome sight of
several pairs of ibex-horns in front of the tents proved
that Carruthers' spell of bad luck had at last broken ; the
best of them was a heavy, symmetrical head of 49 in.

The question now arose whether we should remain
in this region — Carruthers to continue his search for big
ibex, and I to recross the ridge and continue my inter-
rupted sheep-hunt ; or should march at once for
Kulja, and from thence hurry up into Kok-su for a
few weeks' hunting before we started on our long
journey to India.

The expedition to the Kok-su was at last decided
on, but we bitterly regretted our decision later, when,
owing to a lengthy delay in Kulja waiting for our heavy
baggage to arrive from Urumchi, it had to be abandoned.

A long march brought us to the north end of Sairam
Nor, where several families of Kalmuks had pitched their
summer camps. What a different aspect the lake pre-

578 DZUNGARIA

sented now to when we last saw it in January ! Bordering
its dark blue waters were slopes of waving grass which
ran up to patches of dark pine-forest on the surrounding
hills.

The courteous old Amban had sent one of his men
all the way to the lake to inquire after us and bid us
good-bye. Having paid off our men, who had really
worked very well, though they were annoying at times,
we continued on our way to Kulja with a scratch
caravan collected from the surrounding yurts.

The Upper Borotala is undoubtedly one of the finest
sheep countries in Central Asia ; nowhere have I
seen sheep so numerous as there. But the locality fre-
quented by the rams during summer is comparatively
small, and can be hunted out by one gun in about six
days, so that it is important to hunt very slowly, and
not to disturb large areas every day. As to the ibex,
they are certainly fairly numerous in the Urta Saryk, and
good heads are to be obtained ; but whether their horns
reach the enormous dimensions of those which inhabit
the tributaries of the Tekes River, remains to be proved
by future hunters.

Any one intending to visit this new hunting-ground,
which can be reached in four days from Kulja, should
employ a Chanto caravan, so as to be as independent as
possible of the Kalmuks. It is, however, essential to have
two or three of these people with the party to act as
guides and messengers, and to accompany one out
hunting. For this reason it is advisable to call on the
"Tzian Tziun" at Sweeting, who will authorize the
Kalmuks to comply with one's wishes. He has entire
control over the nomads, and the very mention of his
name strikes terror into their hearts.

■^

r^*'%

SPORT IN THE HIGHLANDS 579

I should advise any one who does not fancy doing all
the hunting himself, to engage one of the well-known
shikaris from the Tekes, the Kalmuks of the Borotala
being quite useless in this respect.

With the return to Kulja, although we were still
many thousands of miles from home, we considered
our programme of work accomplished. This narrative
was intended to deal with the undescribed regions of
Upper Asia, and, although we had yet to traverse a wide
area of country before reaching the coast, our route
led us across well-known and much- visited lands.
From Kulja we crossed the Central Tian Shan, and,
travelling by way of the great oases of Chinese Turkestan,
such as Aksu, Kashgar, and Yarkand, we passed
through a region whose physical features, history, social
and economic conditions, have all been exhaustively
dealt with by such illustrious explorers as Hedin, Stein,
and Huntington. Even the great Karakorum, the
highest and perhaps the most awe-inspiring trade-route
in the world, is now a hackneyed journey, granting, no
doubt, an experience not to be missed, and offering
unique lessons to the student of Central Asian geography,
but to which we could make no addition by a narration
of our experiences. From the breathless summit of
the Karakorum we bade farewell to Inner Asia, and our
route led on to Ladakh, Kashmir, and Hindustan.

CHAPTER XX

THE GAME OF THE PLAINS
By J. H. Miller

In these days, when neither distance, nor time, nor hard-
ship deters the true big-game hunter from penetrating
to the most remote quarters of the globe in pursuit of
his hobby, and when new and untrodden hunting-grounds
are becoming scarcer year by year, it is of interest to
recount all the kinds of wild-game that roam the plains
of Dzungaria, which we crossed and recrossed during
our wanderings, and which, until we penetrated its
fastnesses, no white hunter had seriously exploited.

In the spring of 1900 Messrs. Church and Phelps
travelled from Kulja to Urumchi, by the road which runs
along the southern borders of Dzungaria. The former,
in his interesting book, Chinese Turkestan, mentions what
he and his companions saw and heard of game on their
line of march, but with this exception , I am not aware of
any one having gone into the matter. Though ever-
increasing numbers of hunters yearly visit the Tekes
district of the Central Tian Shan, on the south, and, in a
less degree, the Little Altai on the north, this intervening
region has remained practically a terra incognita. The
few travellers who, from time to time, have crossed
portions of this country have merely hurried through,

preferring to trust to the well-known sporting localities

580

THE GAME OF THE PLAINS 581

rather than chance the uncertainties of pioneering new
ground.

As long as " sixty-inch " Ammon can be secured in
the Altai, and the district drained by the right affluents
of the Tekes can produce such magnificent heads of
sheep, wapiti, ibex, and roe as are yearly secured, what
need is there to look for a new country ? But the toll
of the native hunters, and that of the less destructive,
but yearly increasing Europeans, will tell in time, and
drive them to seek for fresh fields of sport. To many
travellers also, the knowledge that several other sportsmen
are hunting within a comparatively small radius, and the
feeling that they themselves at any time may be poaching in
another's "nullah," does away with that sense of freedom
which is half the joy of big-game hunting. The fascina-
tion of treading new ground, where there is no likelihood
of coming across empty jam- tins and match-boxes, and
where the lure of the next skyline is ever calling, is to
some an essential adjunct to the actual hunting.

These sketches of days spent in the chase, and in
studying the habits of big game, I submit to the public,
in the hope that they may prove of interest to naturalists
and sportsmen ; both to the few who contemplate visit-
ing the regions mentioned, and to the majority who,
though continually hearing it, are compelled to turn a
deaf ear to the call of the " red gods."

There is probably no region in Central Asia where
one finds such a decided and sudden change in altitude,
and therefore in flora and fauna, as in Dzungaria. From
the low, sandy, and jungle-covered plains lying to the
north of Manas, which, although they lie at a distance
of 1,600 miles from the ocean, are lifted only 700 ft.
above it, one can look up to peaks that lift their snow-

582 DZUNGARIA

capped summits 20,000 ft. into the heavens. Every
intermediate zone possesses its own fauna. On the
boggy plateaux, which lie tucked away among the jagged
sommits, roam the great wild-sheep, as elusive to the
hunter as they are to the naturalist. The wolf, their
constant persecutor, also inhabits these upland solitudes.
Slightly lower down, the steep slopes and crags above the
timber protect vast herds of ibex, whose greatest enemy
is that most beautiful of cats, the snow-leopard. The
dark forests of spruce and scrub conceal wapiti — of all
beasts in this land the most persecuted by man — roe-deer,
bear, and wild-pig. These are the chief large game of
the mountains. The stony foot-hills which merge almost
imperceptibly into the plains are a favourite locality
for gazelle and the wild-ass, though both are also
found far out on the steppes. The dense jungles which
cover so large a portion of the lowlands, and through
which sluggish, mosquito-ridden rivers wind their way,
are the haunts of the tiger, roe-deer, wild boar, and a
variety of wapiti never yet identified, but probably
similar to the Yarkand stag. The last on the list, and
in some ways the most interesting, is the ungainly Saiga
tartarica, a lover, for the most part, of the lowest and
most saline depressions.

It must not be hastily concluded, by those unfamiliar
with Central Asian conditions, that, because of this
tempting list of game, inhabiting a comparatively small
area, a large and varied bag is easy to obtain. In
the first place, it is a far-distant land, to reach the
western portion of which necessitates either three weary
months of steady marching from India, or from five to
six weeks if one employ the quicker, though in some
ways more tantalizing, Russian routes. Even when the

THE GAME OF THE PLAINS 583

happy hunting-ground is at last reached, several months
of strenuous hunting are necessary, often without the
assistance of any one who can be dignified by the title
of shikari, before a few good heads of, perhaps, four or
five varieties are obtained. I am taking it for granted
that, to any one keen enough to face the vicissitudes of
such an undertaking, trophies of only the first quality
are acceptable.

It was in January, while on our way from Kulja to
Urumchi, along the road with the misleading title
of " The Imperial Highway," or, as it is better known
to the Chinese, " Pei-lu " (North Road), that we first
came properly in touch with the Dzungarian gazelle
(Gazella subgutiurosa). To the Chinese it is known
as " hwang yang " (yellow sheep), to the nomads as
"kara karuk " (black tail), and to the Chantos as
" jeran." Near Sairam Nor we passed several camels
laden with frozen carcasses of these gazelle, and wild boar,
which were being sent by the Kalmuk chiefs to the Tzian
Tziun resident at Sweeting. This exalted personage has
entire control over all the nomads of these parts ; hence
these diplomatic gifts.

After leaving the exposed Sairam Nor basin, which
lies at an altitude of 5,600 ft., and possesses a very just
reputation for excessive cold in winter, we rambled — ^in
our carts — down over a stony steppe to the little village
of Takianzi, situated among small scrub and tall reed
beds. We reached the seria in the early morning, after
a terribly cold night in the carts. Several herds of gazelle
had been passed on the road, so that a broken wheel
formed a welcome excuse for devoting a day to hunting
in the vicinity. The news of our decision having been
flashed through the small bazaar, we were besieged by

584 DZUNGARIA

half the male population, each man being, according to
himself, a mighty hmiter, and the only one who really
knew where the game was to be found. Having selected
the two least noisy and pushing — ^who chanced to be
Kalmuks — we sallied forth.

As we rode towards the foot-hills, which rose like a
white sheet beyond the dark scrub, the vegetation began
to grow thinner. It was composed of patches of thorn
about 5 ft. high, tall, coarse grass, and a few stunted
poplars, intersected by open glades. Our guides in-
formed us that any moment we might expect to see " kara
karuk " ; but, as there were yurts scattered around,
and Kalmuk boys were noisily herding cattle, it
hardly seemed a likely place for such shy animals as
gazelle. However, we noticed almost immediately, some
yellow forms which were moving about among the bushes.
They were only does and quite small bucks ; but, as
we wished to make certain of getting a few specimens,
and found them absurdly easy to approach, we shot
three between us.

Then, leaving the men and horses behind, we soon
found some good bucks. Three of the best, all carrying
good horns of between 12 and 14 in. in length, were added
to the bag. There is no doubt that, if light had per-
mitted, several more could have been shot, since, in
addition to their numbers, the ground was ideal for
stalking, and they showed little fear of man. Like
ostriches, as long as they could not see us, they seemed
to consider themselves safe. When a shot was fired,
they would quickly trot away, and start feeding again
within a few hundred yards. The only accountable
reason for this stupidity is that, when in their summer
haunts, on the smooth, bare plains, they know well that.

THE GAME OF THE PLAINS 585

as long as no human being is in sight, they are perfectlj^
safe, and so they consider the same to hold good when
they are among the scrub. Any one who has attempted
to approach gazelle in the former type of country will
hardly be able to believe that they are ever easy to get
up to. It was a complete revelation to us.

We were not able to skin all the beasts that evening,
and we had the greatest difficulty in getting the skins off
on the following morning. The carcasses had been
frozen solid during the night, though lying inside our
room in the serai. Before they could be skinned they
had to be hung over a fire and thawed out — a slow and
messy job. Though we met with gazelle here and there
through the scrub-belt as far as Urumchi, we never again
saw them in their winter quarters in such numbers as
at Takianzi, and regretted not having spent another
day there. ^

In the zone of Piedmont Gravel on the south side of
the Karlik Tagh gazelle-drives were organized for our
benefit, but, as is usual with this mode of hunting,
beloved by all natives, they proved most unsuccessful,
one buck, which fell to Carruthers' rifle, constituting
our only success. The method the Chant os adopt is
for a large party of ten to twenty horsemen to ride out
to a likely locality. On finding a herd, they ride rapidly
forward on whichever side the ground is most favour-
able for concealment and for taking advantage of. This

^ The winter coat of this gazelle is very dense and from 2 to 3 in.
in length. The upper part of the body is dark fawn ; legs, belly, and
rump white ; tail black (6 in. in length) ; neck and head very pale fawn,
but, in some cases, almost white, and frequently there is a dark streak
under the eyes and black hairs round the base of the horns. The
characteristic of this gazelle, as compared with the other Central Asian
species, is that the horns are considerably more divergent and less closely
and boldly ringed.

586 DZUNGARIA

move is generally carried out in full view of the game,
but, though they bunch together and display their white
rumps, curiosity holds them back from moving away.
As the hunters ride along, every two hundred yards or
so a man slips from his saddle and conceals himself
behind some slight cover, or, if none exist, as is gener-
ally the case, he will build a slight breastwork of
stones, resting his antique muzzle-loader over the top.
When half the number have been left behind in this
fashion, the remainder, leading the riderless horses,
make a wide detour, and spread out on the opposite
side of the herd. With flanks well advanced, they then
move in open order towards the guns. Occasionally
large numbers are killed in this manner, for the terrified
gazelle lose their heads and run down the whole line of
guns. More often, however, they break away at the
sides, or back through the drivers.

The Kirghiz, and occasionally the Chantos, have a
much more sporting way of hunting gazelle, by means
of trained golden eagles, called in Turki " bouragut."
This method is only attempted in winter, when the game
is easy to approach, and the sportsmen have plenty of
time on their hands. Often we saw a man riding along
with a hooded eagle on his well-gauntlet ed right hand.
The great weight of the bird is supported by means of
a forked stick for the wrist, which fits into a socket in
the front of the saddle. We were never fortunate
enough to see a flight ; but Major Cumberland, in Sport
on the Pamirs and Turkestan Steppes, gives such a
good account of a kill he witnessed on the Tarim east
of Aksu, that I cannot do better than quote his descrip-
tion.

*' I was anxious to see the eagle work, and, as I could

THE GAME OF THE PLAINS 587

see nothing of a stag, went off with the Yuzbeggie in the
afternoon to try for another jeran. I was mooning along
thinking of something else, when all of a sudden the
Yuzbeggie started off as hard as he could gallop across
the maidan (plain). I followed suit, and soon made out
a doe- jeran in the distance. It stood and looked at us
in amazement, and then cantered off, not very fast,
while we still continued our headlong career, every now
and then floundering on to our noses over a tussock of
grass or into a hole hidden by the snow, until we got to
about a hundred yards from our game, which only then
realized the situation, and extended its stride. The
shikari now hurled the eagle, which he had unhooded and
held clasped to his breast during the run, at the jeran.
The eagle, instead of rising like a falcon and sweeping on
its prey, flapped along with its great wings quite close
to the ground ; and, although it seemed to fly very slowly,
gradually caught up the jeran, which was impeded in
its course by the high grass, and at last grabbed it by
the rump with its strong talons. It regularly dragged
the deer down, and held on for some time, the little
gazelle kicking out like mad. We still galloped on,
and I wondered what the finish would be. The shikari,
when he got up to them, without drawing rein threw
himself off his pony, and grabbed the deer by the hind-
leg, just as it had kicked itself free, and, pulling out his
knife, cut its throat."

In addition to gazelle, hares, foxes, and even wolves
are killed by means of the golden eagle ; but, in the case
of wolves, dogs are generally used to assist the bird.

Towards the end of April, with the exploration of
the Karlik Tagh completed, and the rigours of the
winter well behind us, we were able to devote the re-

588 DZUNGARIA

mainder of our time in Dzungaria almost entirely to
natural history and hunting.

Between that town of stagnation, Barkul, and the
small wayside station of Ta-shih-tu, a plateau-like mass
of hills, with an average altitude of between 5,000 ft. and
7,000 ft., projects northwards from the main range into
the plains of Eastern Dzungaria. The bulk of this
uplift is of a very open nature, composed of low, rounded
hills with flats between. Water is scarce, only repre-
sented by small springs at long intervals, and these are
generally decidedly brackish. For this reason the nomads
visit the region only in winter, their place being
taken during the summer by large herds of gazelle
and kulon.

When we marched through, westwards, the short
tufty grass, which possesses such marvellous feeding
properties, was in its prime, having been well watered
by the recently departed snow. Thousands of gazelle
and a few wild-asses, straight from their winter quarters
on the lowlands to the north, were busy making up for
their scanty winter fare. Almost all day game was in
sight, though rarely within shot.

One delightful picture remains indelibly fixed in my
memory. It was on one of those invigorating spring
mornings with a hot sun, but clear, cool atmosphere,
which make the highlands of Central Asia such an ideal
summer resort. Carruthers and I were riding ahead
of the caravan, as was our custom, for to ride behind
camels requires the patience of a Job and an Oriental's
indifference to time. On reaching the crest of a rise,
we looked down on a miniature plain, perhaps a mile
long by half a mile broad, and surrounded by quite low-
hills. The bright green grass shooting from the earth

THE GAME OF THE PLAINS 589

and gravel formed a delightful setting to the picture.
In the very centre, away from any dangerous irregularities
of the ground, lazed a large herd of gazelle and ten wild-
asses. Most of the former were busy feeding, but the latter
had finished their breakfast, and were about to indulge
in a siesta. Some were already lying down, others were
enjoying a sand-bath, sending clouds of dust floating
away to leeward, while two by mutual consent were
nibbling shoulders. What a picture Mr. J. G. Millais
could have made out of that scene, with all its atmosphere
and movement !

They were all in an unstalkable position, but shortly
afterwards a slice of luck enabled me to shoot a gazelle
with a very fine pair of long, open-spread horns. He
was among a small herd of six, all males, and in what
they might justly have considered a perfectly safe
position. There was, however, just one large mound
between me and them.

Having reached it in safety, I lay there watching
them and trying to imagine that they were nearer than
they looked ; the most optimistic estimation would not
make them less than four hundred yards off ; much too
far to make at all sure of hitting a small, indistinct beast
like a gazelle. But, as I lay and watched, they played
into my hands, for, strung out in single file, they began
to advance slowly almost straight towards my position.
By that time Carruthers had joined me, and, as they
approached, we criticized their horns, and decided that
the third in the line carried the best pair. Waiting till
he stopped for a moment to scratch his face with a hind-
foot, I fired at his shoulders. It was a bad shot, for
the bullet merely grazed a horn and inflicted a slight
flesh-wound on his back. He was, however, completely

590 DZUNGARIA

stunned by the shock, and a well-placed second bullet
finished the business.

I will now relate our experience with another denizen
of the plains, one that has rarely been seen by Europeans
in its native haunts. Of all the beasts in nature, few
exceed the saiga {Saiga tartarica) for grotesqueness of
form or gait. He seems to be altogether a mistake, to
have been made after all other beasts, when the ingenuity
of the Creator had already been exhausted. He is not
closely related to any other animal, and is a puzzle to
naturalists, who class him with the antelope, though he
is a disgrace to that graceful family. His horns resemble
the gazelle's in shape, though not in colour, while the
skull is like that of no other beast. The shape of his
body, the texture of his coat, and his bleating, all remind
one of a sheep, while the shnking, stooping gait is more
akin to that of some of the smaller jungle-living deer.
His chief characteristic is, of course, the great soft
" Roman " nose, which is out of all proportion to the
body.

In the Pleistocene period the saiga ranged over
Western Europe, even as far as Great Britain, but at
the present day the southern steppes of Russia between
the Don and Volga form its western Umit. From there
its range stretches eastwards, throughout the more
desert portions of Russian Turkestan, with the Siberian
Railway for its northern limit, and the Trans-Caspian
Railway and Tashkent- Kulj a post-road for its southern.

In the vicinity of the low depressions of Lakes Balkash
and Ala Kul it is said to be numerous. It has for many
years been supposed that the saiga extended over the
Russian- Chinese frontier eastwards to Dzungaria, but
I am not aware of any one having actually seen, much

THE GAME OF THE PLAINS 591

less shot one, with the exception of that distinguished
Russian explorer, Colonel Kozloff, who mentions having
come across saiga in the Gobi east of Barkul.

We had frequently heard about it both from the
nomads and the Chinese. To the former it is known
as " burkark " (stooper), and to the latter as " ling
yang " (white sheep), names which depict two of its
chief characteristics.

It was not till we reached Guchen, that busy western
terminus of the great North Gobi caravan-route, that
we first obtained absolute proof of its existence in Eastern
Dzungaria. Considerable numbers of its curious amber-
coloured horns were hanging up in the Chinese shops
there for sale. The Chinese consider them to possess
valuable medicinal properties, and give as much as fifteen
" sairs " for a pair. Every year consignments are sent
to Pekin, where they are made into medicine, though
we were unable to ascertain for what ailment it is a
remedy. The high price put on the head of a saiga
induces a small army of hunters, mostly Chantos, to
spend the summer months in their pursuit.

During our journey eastwards in February we could
not devote much time to hunting, our object being to
reach Kumul as quickly as possible. We were, however,
fortunate in coming across a local hunter, who was to
prove invaluable on our return journey in the spring.

Owing to the impossible nature of the road, caused by
the melting snow, we were delayed for two days at the
small wayside post of Ta-shih-tu, situated on the main
road, where it commences to cross to the south side of
the mountains.

There can surely be no more abominable form of
hostelry in the world than the average Chinese caravan-
II— 18

592 DZUNGARIA

serai, especially if it is in charge of that scum of Western
China, the crafty Dungan. In winter the traveller has
to put up with either intense cold — and how that icy
wind can howl through those ill-fitting doors and paper-
less windows, or a room full of pungent smoke ! In
summer there is no alternative ; it is always a case of
" dust and stench and staleness " plus unremitting atten-
tion from a variety of insect-pests.

Hearing from the man in charge of the serai that
during the winter months numbers of wild-sheep, or,
as he called them in Chinese, Ta lao yang (large-headed
sheep), descend from the main ridge to the low hills
round Ta-shih-tu, we spent the first evening spying with
a telescope from a commanding position. A few wild-
sheep had been found, and we were splashing our wa}^
through the slush and mud back to supper, forming plans
for a hunt on the morrow, when we fell in with a wild-
looking figure making for the same direction. He proved
to be one of those curious, semi-nomadic, and semi-
sedentary Mohammedans one finds in this eastern end
of the Tian Shan. His wild-looking, unkempt appear-
ance at once appealed to us ; over his shoulders was
slung the most antique muzzle-loader I have ever seen,
with a long, forked rest, and its barrel and stock held
together with bindings of raw hide. It was one of those
weapons better to have fired at one than to have
to fire. His clothing consisted of a ragged old sheep-
skin coat, almost black with the blood of many a beast,
bound round the middle with a greasy cloth from which
hung his powder-horn, flint and steel, and a serviceable-
looking knife. Below this he wore short sheep-skin
trousers, and round his legs were wound puttees of felt.
Moccasins, made from the breast-skin of ibex, covered his

THE GAME OF THE PLAINS 593

feet : excellent footgear for dry ground, but the very
worst for the country in its then damp state. A tight-
fitting, black skull-cap was all that protected his head,
which matched so closely the colour of his hairless face,
tanned black by constant exposure, that, at a few
yards off, it was impossible to see where one ended and
the other began. A glance was sufficient to tell that
he was a hunter, without the evidence of a bundle of
freshly killed sheep meat, tied up in the skin of the
animal. He was just the man we had been looking for,
and we lost no time in questioning him as to the game of
the region. Nears — for that was his name — was one of
those children of the wilderness who, having spent their
lives, from boyhood, in hunting, have an unsurpassed
knowledge of the habits of the various species of game
which roam their mountains and plains. The way he
could distinguish game, read spoor, and forecast the
movements of the animals was almost uncanny. Yet in
other respects he was nervous and childish in the extrem.e.

The two days at Ta-shih-tu were spent in hunting
for sheep. There were a good many of them about, but
I saw only one with a good head, and he, with the wari-
ness of his kind, eluded me at the last moment. Two
rams which I had killed carried only small horns, but
their skins v/ere of interest, being in full winter coat,
with a pure white neck-ruff over three inches in length.

As I have already pointed out, the sheep of the
Karlik Tagh are karelini, being in every respect similar
to those of the Borotala. They inhabit the whole of
this eastern extremity of the Tian Shan wherever they
can find seclusion from the natives. Though their horns
do, undoubtedly, occasionally reach a great size there,
the percentage is much smaller than farther west in the

594 DZUNGARIA

Tian Shan and Ala-tau. This I attribute to the inferi-
ority of the feed in the KarUk Tagh. Owing to the
dry influence of the neighbouring deserts, the growth,
for the most part, is of a decidedly steppe-like nature,
there being but little of that boggy grass-land which is
met with in the plateaux farther west. During the
early part of the summer the sheep are independent of
water, finding ample moisture in the wild onions that
grow nearly everywhere. Later on, when these get
dried up, they visit the springs and streamlets. It is
then that the native hunter lies in wait for them,
skilfully concealed within shot of the water ; but it is
very rarely that this method of hunting wild-sheep is
adopted by natives of Central Asia, water, as a rule,
being abundant over all the country inhabited by the
great wild-sheep.

In these two days I was able to form a very favourable
opinion of Nears as a hunter. Besides knowing all
about the business, he was silent, keen, and persevering,
in fact, as nearly ideal a shikari, as it would be possible
to find anywhere. We did not wish to take him with us
on our way eastwards, but we engaged him to guide us
to the haunts of the saiga on our return in the spring.
He informed us that, to reach the best place he knew
of, would take two marches northwards to the very edge
of the hills where they merge into the steppes.

As we rode northwards, it was hard to believe that
the country was the same which we had passed over
only two months before. The snow had all gone, and,
in its place, the earth was covered with short tufts of
bright green grass and small desert plants of various
kinds. In the hollows, where the snow had lain deep,
and left behind abundant moisture, patches of dwarf

THE GAME OF THE PLAINS 595

yellow tulips and blue anemones flashed in the sun-
The icy blasts of winter had been replaced by balmy
breezes, and already the midday sun was beginning to
get uncomfortably powerful.

Animal life had also awakened after its winter's
sleep. The various kinds of small desert mammals were
busy repairing their burrows, which honeycombed the
ground in many places. Smart brown-and- white chats
bobbed fussity in and out of their breeding-holes. Small
lizards darted away at almost every step. These my dog,
Wung, considered to be his own particular perquisite, and
was never tired of chasing them. They were generally
much too quick for him, but occasionally he made a lucky
shot with his clumsy puppy paws, and then he would
march proudty along with the lizard's tail hanging out of
one side of his mouth, till another caught his eye, and
the game started all over again . Small groups of gazelle
were frequently within view, and the tracks of wild-asses
crossed ours, but our thoughts were now directed to the
saiga, and a sharp look-out was kept for it. A meagre
spring of none too clean water befriended us the first night.

A desert hare was shot at this place. No native of
Central Asia, unless he is hard put to it, will eat a hare,
for they are said to be unclean beasts. In the summer,
when there is ample grass for them, this accusation is,
I think, unjust, but during the rigours of winter they
do undoubtedly live on offal round about the native
encampments.

At the end of the second day's march we reached
another spring, from which Nears had hopes that we
should see a few saiga. It was this very place that he
had visited on many occasions. He gave us glowing
accounts of his hunting exploits, the number of saiga

596 DZUNGARIA

he had killed, and how at certain seasons the}^ collect
into vast herds of as many as a thousand. He did not,
however, hold forth much hope of our seeing large
numbers at this season (early May), as there was still
ample feed and moisture further out on the plains. It
is not till the end of May, when the open steppes begin
to get burnt up, that they move in towards the fringe
of the foot-hills, where there are scattered springs, and
where abundance of grass is to be found throughout
the summer.

Leaving Pereira to make the camp snug, and Carruthers
busy setting his traps, Nears and I rode off to an out-
lying bluff that protruded into the limitless plains, like
a headland into a tranquil sea.

With the horses concealed below the crest, we lay
on the top, scanning the flats be3'ond, Nears with his
eyes, and I wdth the only slightly more powerful Zeiss
glasses. For some time the antics of a fox, busily in
search of his evening meal, in the shape of desert rats,
riveted my attention. He was not a hundred yards
away, and his method of making the rats bolt was inter-
esting and amusing in the extreme. Having found an
occupied hole, he would start digging furiously, first at
one entrance and then at another, and in between he
jumped up and down on the top of the burrow. He
was not always successful in his endeavours, but bolted
two while I watched, one of which he seized with a
lightning-like spring. I was contemplating trying to
shoot him for his skin, when Nears, whose eyes had been
busy farther afield, touched me on the shoulder, and
pointed out over the plain, saying " Iky burkark " (Two
saiga). Two white spots were plainly visible with the
naked e^^e. Directl}^ one of them was focussed within

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THE GAME OF THE PLAINS 597

the field of the telescope I knew that I was at last
looking at one of those rarely seen beasts. They were
quite unapproachable where they were, so I contented
myself with watching them, till the fading light drove
us back to camp. I had, at any rate, the satisfaction
of knowing that there were some saiga in the neigh-
bourhood.

Even in sheep-hunting one should be on the move
before sunrise, but, to be successful with the saiga, camp
must be left behind while the stars are yet in the sky.
The reason of this is that this wary beast is essentially
a lover of the open plains, where he is used to an unin-
terrupted view for several miles in every direction. But,
as the merciless summer sun scorches the moisture out
of the lower levels, he is driven irresistibly in towards
the edge of the hills, where fresh green grass flourishes
late into the summer, and where he can slake his thirst
at occasional springs. So unsafe, however, does he
feel, among even the lowest hills, that he only comes in
to feed and drink at dusk, and soon after sunrise is far
out on the plains once more, where he passes the day,
lying down in the shelter of some small desert shrub.

It was still dark on the following morning when we
mounted and made once more for the bluff. Just at
break of day we left the horses tied head to tail in a
hollow ; this bluff rose only about 100 ft. above the
surrounding plain. Making our way along its crest, we
almost walked on to the top of a " burkark " feeding in
a hollow. It was a female with no horns, so I did not
fire, though I doubt if I should have hit it if I had, as
the light was still very bad, and it only presented a stern
shot. This was the first time I had ever seen one of
these beasts on the move. Not only in structure does

598 DZUNGARIA

the burkark differ from all other animals, but also in its
movements. Even when thoroughly alarmed, it never
raises its head above the line of its shoulders. Its move-
ments resemble those of a clockwork animal more than
anything else. On being disturbed it gets into its full
pace immediately, and during the first hundred yards
gives two or three curious leaps, with the fore part of
its body only ; it exhibits none of the graceful movements
of the gazelle, but moves its legs rapidly, without dis-
turbing the steadiness of its body, the motion resembling
that of a pacing horse.

We now moved very slowly along, carefully spying
the slopes of the bluff which faced the plains. All along
the crest was a line of low stone sangars, which, Nears
informed me, were used by him and other hunters later
on in the summer. He told me that he had frequently
seen several herds of burkark, numbering hundreds, from
this very position during the month of July.

Soon after this we spied a solitary buck feeding at the
foot of the slopes. He was in a very favourable position
for a stalk, and we had no difficulty in getting within
fifty yards. I then made one of the worst shots imagin-
able, missing him clean, though he offered an easy broad-
side shot. His escape, however, was shortlived, for
after a rapid spurt of a hundred yards he stopped for
a moment to look back ; there was no mistake about
the accuracy of the second shot, for it caught him fairly
in the shoulder. He proved to be only a young buck
with immature horns. Being in the middle of changing
from his winter to his summer coat, he had a very untidy
appearance. This animal stood 27J in. at the shoulder,
and weighed, when cleaned, 40 lb. Besides being only
a young beast, he was in very poor condition, and I

THE GAME OF THE PLAINS 599

should estimate the weight of an adult male in good
condition at from 50 lb. to 60 lb.

We saw three more saiga, and numbers of gazelle,
but all well out on the flat, and away from any cover.
As we ate our breakfast on the very point of the little
promontory, with no sound to break the stillness of the
desert except the chuckling cry of the sand-grouse as
they winged their way in towards some spring, I could
not help marvelling at the immensity of the view that lay
spread before us in the clear early morning atmosphere.
Westwards stretched the '* illimitable plains," without
the vestige of a hillock to break the endless monotony ;
to the north a wavy line indicated the sand-dune area,
which we had visited from Guchen, while far beyond
was hazily visible the blue outline of the southern spurs
of the Altai. Looking comparatively near on the south
and south-west, rose the snow-capped summits of the
Tian Shan, culminating in the glittering crests of the
Bogdo peaks. It is largely the recollection of such
scenes as these which fires the nomadic blood in our
veins, and compels some of us to flee, for a time, from
the hurry and bustle of civilization to seek the solitary
regions of the earth.

That evening one of those terrific dry winds which
seem to come from nowhere and end as suddenly as
they start, sprang up and raged throughout the night ;
everything, including our mouths, was filled with grit ;
and it was only by constant attention to ropes and
pegs that the tents were kept standing.

Next day we left the hills and travelled west-
wards towards Guchen. While our camp was being
struck we amused ourselves with shooting sand-grouse.
For an hour or more, flocks of these birds flew round the

6oo DZUNGARIA

spring, offering many sporting shots. After circling
round a few times they reahzed that there was no chance
of their getting to the water, so headed off towards some
quieter spring. That evening we joined the caravan-
route, a broad, well-trodden track, and rested for the
night at a small serai. There were two Chanto saiga-
hunters also spending the night there, from whom we
were able to learn more about their quarry. During
the winter the burkark collect into vast herds, number-
ing frequently from eight hundred to a thousand, and
retire to the lowest and most sandy and saline portions
of the plains, at an altitude of only from 700 ft. to 900 ft.
above sea-level, relying on the snow and desert shrubs
for their food and water. In April they split up into
small parties of from two to six and spread over the
steppes, finding abundance of food in the desert flora
which shoots up as the snow melts.

They drop their young (generally two) about the
middle or end of May, and later in the summer again
collect into herds of several hundreds. From June to
August is the season during which they are principally
pursued, though a few hardy hunters brave the rigours
of the winter in their pursuit. It is at daybreak that
the hunters catch them in country sufficiently undulating
for a stalk, or lie concealed behind a low breastwork
of stones commanding a spring. In July heavy storms
occasionally sweep over the steppes, leaving large pools
standing in the hollows. At these casual drinking-places
the hunters dig skilfully concealed pits, and one old
veteran told us that at such a place on one occasion he
allowed a herd of several hundred to come within twenty
yards of him before firing. During the breeding season
the females utter a sheep-like bleat to call their young

THE GAME OF THE PLAINS 6oi

to them ; a wounded animal will sometimes utter the
same cry.

The summer programme of these two hunters was to
hunt the burkark till the beginning of June, and then
hurry up into the forested mountains to the south for
a month's " bogo " (stag) hunting, and then back to the
burkark again. When it is remembered that the
Chinese merchants will readily give as much as from
a hundred to two hundred roubles for a good pair of
wapiti horns in the velvet it can be understood that a
hunter who secures even a moderate pair, and ten or
twelve pairs of saiga-horns, has made more than enough
to support himself and family for a year. Often several
hunters combine and divide the spoils equally.

The natives have a method of hunting the saiga
which is often successful in the flattest and barest
country ; on one occasion we saw them employ this
method. On finding some burkark, some eight men ride
slowly towards them in pairs with an interval of about
eighty yards between each pair, the two flank pairs
being well advanced ; as soon as the game becomes
alarmed, and begins to move away from them, the
horsemen quicken their pace till they are tearing along
at full gallop. In this first rush the horsemen gain
shghtly on their quarry, who, thinking that they are
going to be surrounded, break back. As soon as the
horsemen see them about to do this, one of every pair
slips from his horse and lies flat on the ground with his
gun ready. The others continue to advance, leading
the riderless horses. The saiga then break back between
the horsemen, often giving the prostrate men an easy
chance.

I have not yet dealt with the wild-ass, or "kulon,"

6o2 DZUNGARIA

which is the name by which it is known among the natives
of Dzungaria. To do so I must retrace our steps to the
time when, in January, we were travelhng eastwards
along the snow-covered surface of the Pei-lu. Though,
in answer to our frequent questions, we were continually
being vaguely assured of their existence, it was not till
we reached Shi-Kho that any definite information was
forthcoming. A blacksmith there informed us that
not only were kulon constantly seen from the road
between Shi-Kho and the village of Yandzhikhai, but
that two Chantos actually possessed a tame one not far
from the latter place.

Two stages over rising treeless ground, with an
unbroken expanse of snow in every direction, and a
cutting wind which froze the breath to our beards and
moustaches till we could hardly open our mouths to
speak, brought us to the small village with the un-
pronounceable name. On hearing from the head-man
that the Chantos owning the tame kulon lived ten miles
to the south, on the edge of the foot-hills, I decided
to pay them a visit, the opportunity of seeing one of
these animals in captivity being too good to lose.

Early in the morning after our arrival, Pereira and I,
with one man as a guide, started off, making a detour
in search of a herd of kulon which had been recently
seen in the vicinity. We did find their tracks, but soon
had to give up looking for them, owing to a blinding
snowstorm, which made it impossible to see more than
fifty yards in any direction. It was a mystery to me how
our guide found his way, for any track that there might
have been was completely covered by the snow. How-
ever, with almost uncanny native instinct, he led us
unerringly to our destination, a large mud-hut by a

CENTRAL DZUNGARIA IN WINTER.

A DOMESTICATED KULON AND ITS CKANTO OWNER.

C02I

THE GAME OF THE PLAINS 603

frozen stream. We were soon all sipping tea in front of
a blazing fire, which made our faces tingle and the water
drip from our snow-covered garments. The kulon was
with us inside the house in company with several calves.
It was perfectly docile, but had stubbornly resisted every
effort on the part of its captors to break it to the saddle.
Two years previously these two Chantos had surprised a
herd of mares and young among some low hills. Gallop-
ing down upon them, they had captured one of the foals,
then only a day or two old, and had brought it up on
goats'-milk. Though I offered the men a considerable
sum for it, they would not part. I should have liked
to have taken it home to England, and to have given it
to the Zoological Society, where this variety of wild-ass
is unrepresented, though I doubt if it would have sur-
vived the long journey to India.

On the following morning I took several photographs
of it. From the roof of the house I spotted a large herd
of kulon, but they were on such fiat country that it
was not worth while attempting to approach them, and
I contented myself with a long look through the telescope.
I decided, on the suggestion of our hosts, to return to
Yandzhikhai through some low hills, where there were
said to be sheep at this season. To my great sur-
prise we did see several sheep, one or two carrying
quite good heads, but, though the formation of the
ground was very suitable for stalking, I failed to shoot
one, the reason being that, thinking we should not be
likely to see anything worth a shot, I had donned a pair
of Russian felt boots, to keep my feet warm while riding.
Though they are about the best footgear for that
purpose, they are quite the worst in which to climb
steep, snow-covered slopes. Judging by the shape of

6o4 DZUNGARIA

their horns, these sheep were 0. karelini, which had
been driven down from the high plateaux to the south by
the rigours of the winter. On the following day, while
driving along the main road, we saw a herd right down
on the plain at the foot of the hills, and certainly not
more than i,ooo ft. above sea-level. I should imagine
that there must be some magnificent sheep-ground
somewhere among the confused mass of mountains at
the head of the Manas River, close to the Yulduz divide.

It was in Guchen that we next came in touch with
the kulon. A wild-looking, bow-legged Kirghiz was
seen hobbling through the bazaar with the skin of a
freshly killed kulon over his shoulder. He informed us
that he came from the kum (sand), to the north, and
that kulon were very numerous there. As we were
anxious to visit this sand-dune area, we seized the oppor-
tunity of killing two birds with one stone, and on the
following morning started off in a north-easterly direction,
with this Kirghiz as our guide. Two long days in the
saddle brought us to his aoul situated on the edge of
the sand, among tall saxaul scrub. So easy is it to
lose one's way in the maze of sand-dunes that even the
nomads, who are past masters in the art, or, more
correctly, instinct, of finding their way, have to build
cairns of brushwood to mark the position of their camps.

There certainly were fair numbers of kulon about,
but, as they stuck to the flat, hard country, away from
the sand, a near approach was quite out of the question.
I have vivid recollections of wrigghng along serpent-wise,
with my sleeves and pockets full of snow, trying to keep
concealed behind a bush held in front. Five hundred
yards was as near as I ever got, but it was only thanks
to their curiosity ; they saw through my feeble attempt

THE GAME OF THE PLAINS 605

at concealment long before that. Just when I was
considering the chances of a long shot they would wheel
round and gallop off, a muddle of tails and hoofs amid
a cloud of flying snow. We were told that, during
severe storms, they come in among the sand-dunes for
shelter, and it is then that they are shot.

No doubt the reader is wondering why I took all
this trouble to try and shoot a beast which is of little or
no value as a hunting trophy, and which, at any rate
in Tibet, is looked upon by hunters as nothing less than
a pest, owing to the irritating habit it has of approaching
the hunter out of curiosity, and so warning nobler game
of his presence, though in this respect the " kiang " of
Tibet must be very different from his near relative, the
kulon of Dzungaria. I was anxious to secure a specimen
of the wild-ass, so as to be able to prove to which variety
it belongs, no specimen having been previously brought
to England from this region.

It was not till July, when crossing the Dzungarian
Gate north of Ebi Nor, on our way from the Barlik-
Maili Mountains to the Borotala, that I at length secured
two specimens at the very last opportunity which pre-
sented itself. I can remember that day well, as being
one of the hottest I have ever experienced. While the
caravan started off on its day's march across the de-
pression to a spring in the Kizil Tagh on the western
side, my hunter and I struck off in a southerly direction
to visit a spring situated at the edge of the hills on the
eastern side. He informed me that this spring, being
the only one for many miles, was much frequented by
kulon.

Although, when we reached the spring, a maze of
fresh tracks in the loose, dry earth made by both kulon

6o6 DZUNGARIA

and gazelle proved his statement to be true, a careful
search in the vicinity revealed no signs of their presence.
We had started off at a sharp trot westwards, intent
on catching up with the caravan, and had left the hills
behind us, when some moving, mirage-distorted objects
caught our eyes. The glasses showed them to be kulon,
moving slowly, almost straight towards us. Hastily dis-
mounting, we led the horses into a slight hollow which
effectively hid us all from view. After moving forward
a short way all together, I left my man with the horses,
and continued to advance by myself, making for a clump
of sandstone mounds. On reaching their welcome
shelter I at once saw that I was in a very favourable
position, for the kulon, now only some 500 yards away,
were taking a line that would bring them within 100
yards of my position. They were moving slowly along,
occasionally nibbling at the low saxaul bushes, which
covered the ground in places, evidently making for some
shady spot among the hills, there to indulge in their
midday siesta. As soon as they were fairly opposite
my position, I fired at the leader, killing him dead in
his tracks, and then made two disgraceful shots as they
galloped away. After going 100 yards or so they stood
a moment to look back, and I dropped another. They
were both four or five-year-old males, and measured
respectively 50 in. and 53 in. at the shoulder; they
looked very smart and well-groomed in their short,
glossy summer coats.

With the exception of the belly and rump-patch,
which are white, the body is sandy fawn, the whole of
the legs being of the same colour, though of a slightly
lighter shade ; from the short, dark-brown mane to the
tail-tuft runs a chocolate-coloured dorsal stripe, with a

f •••

,'^i^p

THE GAME OF THE PLAINS 607

narrow, dirty white, or very light fawn, margin. The
tail, with its black end-tassel, is very mule-like ; in fact,
in its whole appearance the animal resembles a mule
more than a donkey. The ears are short and horse-like,
with dark-brown tips and thickly-haired edges ; the
upper portion of the face is of a dark, sandy fawn,
merging into an almost white nose ; the throat and
chest are " isabelline." The nose of the kulon is only
very slightly rounded in profile.

On comparing one of my specimens with an adult
Tibetan kiang {Equus hemionus kiang), in summer
coat, in the possession of the British Museum, I found
several marked differences, as might be expected from
the different environment of the two animals. The
kiang is never found below an altitude of 15,000 ft.,
while the kulon of Mongolia rarely reaches an altitude
of 3,000 ft., and, at any rate in Dzungaria and portions
of Russian Turkestan, is found at an altitude of only
700 ft. above sea-level. This accounts for the former
carrying a much rougher and more wavy coat than the
latter. The general body-colour of a kiang is " rufus "
chestnut instead of the pale fawn of the more desert-
loving kulon ; its dorsal stripe is also less pronounced
and without any light margin. But the greatest differ-
ence of all is that, in the kiang, the whole of the legs are
white, while in the kulon they are light sandy fawn,
right down to the hoof.

My specimens are undoubtedly Equus hemionus
typicus, called by Mongols ** Chigetai " and by Turki
people "kulon." Its extreme eastern distribution is
at present imperfectly known ; Sir Francis Young-
husband, in his journey across the Northern Gobi, men-
tions seeing kulon in the Gobi at the extreme eastern
II — 19

6o8 DZUNGARIA

end of the Altai. They are found north of the Altai
Range on the plains, round the large lakes in the Kobdo
region ; we met with them near Barkul, and in several
other places throughout Southern Dzungaria. West-
wards they extend throughout Northern Russian Turke-
stan, being exceedingly numerous in the neighbourhood
of Lake Balkash. During the summer they frequent
foot-hills, where the grass does not get so burnt up as on
the plains ; during the winter they roam all over the
steppes, eating snow in place of water. The natives hunt
them occasionally for their skins and meat, which they
consider more palatable than the best mutton. The
heat was so great at the time these two specimens were
killed that within ten hours the hair showed signs of
" slipping " in places, and it was only with the greatest
difficulty that one complete skin was saved.

The wild-ass is not the only species of equus that
exists in Dzungaria, for there is no doubt that the wild-
horse [Equus cahallus prjevalskii) also inhabits the
northern portions of that region. We were never lucky
enough to see any, but the natives, both Kalmuk and
Kazak, all told the same tale, often volunteering the
information that, in addition to the kulon, there were
wild-horses. They described them as being very like the
kulon, but having longer and blacker manes and tails ;
also, they said, the meat was not so good. They told
us that there were large herds of them in the vicinity
of Lake Ulungur, and eastwards along the southern foot
of the Altai ; also north of that range.

I have now only to mention what I might call the
" low country '* wapiti, and the tiger. As we were
never fortunate enough to see either of these in the flesh,
there is not much that I can write in connexion with

THE GAME OF THE PLAINS 609

them. The habitat of the stag points to its being identical
with Cervus cashmirianus yarkandensis of the Tarim
basin, on the south of the Tian Shan. The altitude,
the dense reed-beds, and the poplar forests are identical.
To the best of my knowledge, no specimen of this
Dzungarian stag has ever been brought to Europe for
identification. They are not much hunted by the natives,
owing to the density and mosquito-scourged nature of
their country, the mountain wapiti (Cervus canadensis
asiaticus) being more numerous and much easier to
secure. Their habitat is the whole of the jungle-covered
country from just east of the Manas River to the south-
east of Ebi Nor.

The tiger inhabits the same country as the wapiti,
though, perhaps, keeping rather more to the dense reed-
jungle. It is, however, not entirely restricted to the
plains, for in the Kash, Kunguz, and Jingalong valleys,
on the Upper Hi River, it is found at an altitude of from
4,000 ft. to 5,000 ft. among the thick scrub on the edge
of the spruce forest. Every year a few tiger-skins find
their way into the Urumchi, Manas, or Shi-Kho bazaars.
They are, in nearly every case, secured in winter, by the
farmers and herdsmen living on the edge of the jungle,
by means of poisoned carcasses of sheep or goats. Very
few of the natives would dare to fire at a tiger, with
their generally inaccurate firearms. We met several
men who had seen them, but they all admitted that they
had an absolute dread of them. Wild-pig, which abound
throughout all the country, are undoubtedly the tigers'
staple food, but during the winter they occasionally
raid a farmer's flocks, and it is then that poisoned car-
casses are laid out for them.

During the summer, mosquitoes, the density of the

6io DZUNGARIA

jungle, and the boggy nature of large areas of the country,
make hunting impossible. In winter, when the whole
land is frozen, and covered with snow, and much of
the vegetation is knocked down by the frost, a hardy
sportsman would stand a good chance of getting a shot
at a tiger, though I doubt if they are anywhere numerous.
Having found out where a beast had recently been seen,
the best plan would be to take up one's quarters in a
yurt in the vicinity. Messengers would then be des-
patched far and wide, informing every one that a substan-
tial reward awaited whoever brought in reliable informa-
tion as to the whereabouts of a tiger. The sportsman
would probably have to put up with a long, cold wait,
but the triumph of securing such a rare trophy would be
ample recompense. At the same time, there would
always be the chance of a stag, about which nothing
is known definitely at present.

It must be remembered that the tiger which in-
habits Dzungaria and the Tarim basin, also the Ala Kul,
Balkash, Syr Darya, and other portions of Russian
Turkestan, is a very different animal to the Manchurian
variety. It is not so long-haired, and it is considerably
smaller and less finely marked.

APPENDIX

APPENDIX A

THE DUNGANS

In the brief sketch, given in Chapter XIII, of the inhabitants
of Dzungaria only slight mention was made of the Dungans,
or Tungans, as the Mohammedan Chinese of the north-western
parts of the Empire are called.

These people, however, claim much attention, and a more
detailed description of them is required, not only on account of
the peculiar position they hold in the Chinese Empire, but on
account of the disturbances they caused in past times and the
danger they threaten to become in the future. Moreover, in a
book dealing with countries forming the frontiers of Islam and
Buddhism, the fact of a considerable and increasing population
of Mohammedan Chinese calls for further information on the
subject.

The Dungans of Dzungaria are located on the outskirts both
of the Chinese Empire and of the Islamic world. They are in an
entirely different position to the Mohammedan Chinese of the
central provinces, for, instead of being isolated, they are in
close proximity to the great Mohammedan centres of Central
Asia, and the vicinity of this great Mohammedan population
— both in Chinese and in Russian Turkestan — grants them an
increased prestige.

It is not surprising to find a strong Mohammedan element
in China when we realize the fact that, not only had the power
of Islam spread from the Atlantic to Central Asia within a cen-
tury of the death of Mohammed, but that the Arabs themselves
had been in communication with China for nearly two centuries
before the birth of Islam. We have to remember that, when
the first waves of the Arab conquest spread across Central Asia,
China was in closer communication with, and more influenced

613

6i4 APPENDIX

by, Western Asia than it is even in these days. Early in the
seventeenth century China was in actual danger of experiencing
the savage onslaught of Kutaiba, the Arab conqueror of Central
Asia; for, after bringing the lands bordering on the Chinese
Empire under his subjection, the Arab general seriously con-
sidered the question of demanding the submission of the Celestial
Empire. On one occasion they even came to blows, the Chinese
army of 200,000 men being defeated ; but the flow of Islam
into Western China was finally arrested by the death of Kutaiba
and the overthrow of the Omeyide dynasty. The spread of
Islam is one of the marvels of history, and it is not strange that
an Empire with a number of Mohammedan protectorates, as
China has, should produce a "half-caste" element professing
this faith.

In the days following the introduction of Islam into Central
Asia, China had dominion over many tribes of Turkish descent
who were the earliest to embrace the new religion. These people
came of a fighting race, and on several occasions were able to
aid China when troubles at home found her in a difficult position.
For example, we are told, that in the middle of the eighth century
some 4,000 " Arabs " (probably Uigur, Tadjik, or Usbeg Moham-
medans from the present-day Chinese and Russian Turkestan)
came to the assistance of the Emperor of China and helped
to quell a rebellion. These troops, we are expressly told, never
returned to their original home, but settled in the home pro-
vinces of China and married Chinese wives. It has been
suggested that these people were one of the sources from which
sprang the five or more millions of Mohammedans who now thrive
within the Empire. On other occasions, also, people of Moham-
medan faith settled in China. Records exist which tend to
show that, at the end of the eighth century, there were as many
as 4,000 families residing in Sianfu, who had originally come from
Central Asia. These people had entered China for various reasons,
and, owing to the difficulty of returning home, — caused by the
unsettled state of Central Asia at that date, — they had asked
permission to remain as settlers. The Chinese granted them
their desire, and used them as mercenaries, paying them a monthly
allowance.

THE DUNGANS 615

Another proof of the theory that the Chinese Mohammedans are
of Turki origin, is found in the derivation of the title " Hui-hui,"
by which they are known throughout the Empire. This term,
according to Dr. Bretschneider, was given formerly to the Uigurs
of Northern Mongolia, a people of pure Turki origin who were
afterwards driven out of Mongolia, and formed a kingdom in
Southern Dzungaria and Chinese Turkestan. These people em-
braced Islam, and were no doubt the main source from which
emanated the Turki Moslem communities in China Proper,
It is easy to understand how, in time, the name came to be
applied to all Moslems.

The next great movement which brought China into close
communication with Western Asia and Islam was that resulting
from the conquests of Jenghis Khan. This great Mongol con-
queror destroyed the capitals of the Islamic civilization, and
the seats of Mohammedan learning, and, by virtue of this, China,
under the Mongol Emperors, became almost the sole protector
of Islam in Central Asia. Vast numbers of Mohammedans now
began to flock into China. Jenghis Khan himself spared the lives
of all those who could be of use to him, and transported Arab
and Persian skilled artisans, and men of learning into Cathay.
This resulted in the establishment of a strong Mussulman com-
munity in China, which increased rapidly in power and in
wealth, which kept its religious independence, although it lost
its individuality as a nation, and which rapidly assimilated
its neighbours and surroundings, until the entire community
became Chinese in all but name.

The Chinese Moslem can generally be distinguished from
other Celestials by his physiognomy, his build, and some small
details in his habits. So closely, however, do they sometimes
approach each other in type, that they are almost indistinguish-
able except for certain differences discovered only after much
observation. On the whole, it was the manner and bearing
of the Dungan that most impressed me and proved him as
different to his fellow-subjects. Energy and keenness, even if
mixed with some insolence, make him preferable to deal with.
Usually of a fine build, with a bridged nose and a modified
almond-shaped eye, the Moslem always shows some trace of his

6i6 APPENDIX

Turki origin, and his habit of following the Mussulman custom of
shaving the lower portion of the upper lip enables one to identify
him in far Western China. I am unaware if this habit is adopted
by all followers of the Prophet throughout China Proper,

It is said that the Mohammedan can be detected by his manner
of speech, and that many speak dialects of corrupt Mongolian
or Turki origin ; but this detail could only be distinguished by
scholars who are well acquainted with the various and confus-
ing dialects of the Chinese language.

It will be noted, therefore, that the Mohammedan Chinese
were originally " half-breeds," and, consequently, through in-
creased virility, they have had an advantage which has enabled
them to become an important and numerous element of the
Chinese Empire. Islam does not appear to have been pro-
pagated in China either by the sword or by the making of
converts, but solely by the rapid increase of an originally
small community of foreigners, who married Chinese wives and
naturally brought up their families in their own faith. The most
significant remarks on this subject were made by the writer
Du Halde in 1735, which I will quote from Mr. Broomhall's
Islam in China. He speaks of the " Mohammedan sect, settled
above six hundred years ago in divers provinces, where they live
in quiet, because they take no great pains to extend their
doctrine and make proselytes. In ancient times they increased
their numbers solely by the alliances and marriages they con-
tracted ; but for some years past they have made a consider-
ableprogress by help of their money. They everywhere buy up
children whose parents, unable to educate them, make no scruple
to sell them. During a famine which wasted the province of
Shantung they purchased above ten thousand. They marry them,
and either buy or build a considerable share of a city, and
even whole country towns, to settle them in. Hence, by little
and little, they are grown to such a head in many places as not
to suffer any to live among them who goes not to the mosque ;
by which means they have multiplied exceedingly within three
hundred years."

The exact number of Mussulmans within the Chinese Empire
cannot be estimated with any degree of certainty. The Moslems

THE DUNCANS 617

themselves, who alone have any idea of their numbers, exaggerate
the total to such an extent, in their endeavour to increase their
prestige, that the figures cannot be relied upon. The estimates
vary in a bewildering way from 3,000,000 to 70,000,000 ; but
it seems that some reliance is to be placed in Mr. Broomhall's
carefully collected data and general summary of the maximum
and minimum Mussulman population of the different provinces.
The conclusion he comes to, is that the total number of Moham-
medans within the Empire is somewhere between 5,000,000 and
10,000,000. This, of course, includes the Turki-Moslem popula-
tion of Sin-Kiang, — which probably amounts to between 1,000,000
and 2,700,000 of the total, — as well as the true Chinese Moslem,
the Hui-hui, or Dungan.

In spite of recent persecution the Moslems retain a strong
hold on what they possess, and, owing to their greater virility,
increase more rapidly than the Chinamen, and are therefore able
to keep up their numbers and make good the check caused by
recent insurrections, and the massacres which followed. It is,
however, probable that the Moslems have, on the whole, lost and
not gained ground during the last fifty years.

Whether the pan-Islamic movement will cause a religious
revival or not, remains to be seen. Closer relations may spring
up between the Chinese and the Central Asian Moslem com-
munities, owing to the definite advance of the Moslem nomadic
tribes from Russian Central Asia into China, and to the rapid
increase of the resident population of Dungans in Dzungaria.
In fact, the chain of Islam across Asia is now complete.

There is small likelihood, however, of a complete under-
standing taking place between China and her Moslem subjects.
The feeling between the two sections is more bitter to-day than
before the insurrection of 1862-77. The Moslem in China is also
probably more fanatical than his far western co-religionist, who
is slowly becoming accustomed to European ideas and to the
advance of science and increased facilities of communication.
Travellers in China state that only amongst the Moslems do
they meet with studied insolence and undisguised dislike. The
rebellions of 1862-77 tended to prove that the fanatical feeling
existing between the Moslems and Chinese had in no sense abated

6i8 APPENDIX

The mention of the Chinese Moslems of Sin-Kiang, or the
New Dominion, called for these further details on the subject
of Islam in China. With regard to this region, the Dungans
— the general term for the Chinese Moslems of the far western
province — are concentrated in Southern Dzungaria, whereas
the remainder of Sin-Kiang is almost entirely peopled by Turki
Moslems, who were doubtless the progenitors of the half-bred
Turki-Chinese Dungans, with whom, however, they now possess
nothing in common beyond the religious point of view.

It appears that the Dungans are mostly colonists from the
Moslem populations of Kansu and Shensi. The name has a
doubtful origin; Vambery suggests that it means "convert,"
and that the Dungans of Dzungaria represent the Chinese
who were converted to Islam in the fifteenth century by an
Arab taken by Timor, or Tamerlane, from Damascus to Central
Asia. The colonists, transported thither by the Emperor Kien-
lung in the eighteenth century, also embraced Islam and added
to the number of Dungans.

Vambery' s theory of the conversion of the pure Chinese to
the Mohammedan faith remains, however, without confirmation,
although several writers agree with his explanation of the term
Dungan. Amongst these is Abd-ul-Aziz, a Mullah of Kulja.
who wrote on the Moslems of China. The name Dungan, or
Tungan, according to him, is derived from the verb tunmck —
"to turn" — in the Turki language, as used in Central Asia.
The word has become familiar to Europe through the Russians
who have adopted it from their Turki subjects in Turkestan
Abd-ul-Aziz does not believe that the Arabs had anything to
do with the origin of the Dungans, as their physiognomy and
customs are Mongolian ; but he does not mention to what extent
he considers that the Turki people of Central Asia mingled with,
and married, Chinese women in the past.

Other writers, again, affirm that all attempts to discover the
exact meaning of the word Dungan have proved unsatisfactory.
In China Proper the Moslems are always called " Hui-hui" ; the
most accepted translation of the word signified by the character
" Hui " is the phrase " to return," which may be the equivalent
of the Arabic " Islam" — " to return and to submit."

SAIRAM NOR

619

APPENDIX B

THE ANCIENT STRANDS AND BARRIERS OF SAIRAM NOR

Sairam Nor is a lake-basin situated in the mountains to the
north of Kulja, at an altitude of 5,900 ft. above sea-level. The
mountain-wall surrounding the basin is complete, except at a
narrow opening on the east, between the Kanjik ridge on the
north and the Kuz-imchik on the south, through which, it appears,
that the basin once drained to the Ebi Nor basin on the Dzungarian
plains below. At the eastern end of the Sairam Nor basin, there

^y^CIEJiJ^T STRANDS AND BARRTEHS 0:F SAIRAM TVOR

statute Miles
o

are signs that the level of the lake was once much higher than
it is at the present day, and that in all probability the area
was transformed into a lake-basin, at no very distant date, by
the formation of skrees from the Kanjik and Kuz-imchik ridges,
which raised a barrier and enclosed the drainage. The distance
between the eastern edge of the lake and the barrier is about
five miles ; the whole of this area was once occupied by the
lake, as proved by the succession of shingle-banks which remain,
showing where once the strong west winds heaped up those

620 APPENDIX

barriers, in the same way as they are doing on a minor scale at
the present day.

Along the eastern edge of the lake these barriers are in
actual process of formation. As will be seen by the diagram,
there are two completely formed shingle-banks enclosing lagoons
and a third one not so completely formed. In the course of time
the lagoons will dry up and more shingle-banks will be left
high and dry on the shore. An almost imperceptible rise leads
to another very large, crescent-shaped bank ; beyond this are
two small banks, and then another large one ; farther still, at
a longer interval, is the last bank before arriving at the actual
barrier of skrees, which is the watershed between the lake-
basin of Sairam Nor and the valley draining to Ebi Nor,

All the banks conform to the shape which the eastern end
of the lake must have had when the water-level stood at that of
a given bank ; this is especially noticeable at the oldest or most
easterly one. The banks are, of course, now covered with soil
and support the scanty steppe-flora such as is found round the
edge of the basin. No lagoons or shingle-banks were seen in
any other part of the lake.

The prevailing wind is from the west, the Sairam Nor plateau
having a reputation for winds of extraordinary violence. These,
when concentrated in the narrow neck formed by the Kanjik
and Kuz-imchik ridges, have their strength intensified, and the
gradual heaping up of shingle-banks takes no great time. A
proof of the strength of the winds was given us when we passed
along the southern edge of the lake in the month of January,
for we noticed that its frozen surface was so covered with gravel
and grit blown on to the ice that it was brown instead of white.
All this was gradually being swept up towards the eastern end,
and no doubt eventually went to add to the accumulation of
material which is being slowly banked up there.

The precipitation of rain in summer and snow in winter is
considerable, and the area which drains, into the lake would be
sufficient to cause an overflow, were it not for the fact that the
drainage seems to be exhausted by the surrounding country,
before it reaches the lake. It is noteworthy that there are no
streams entering the lake above ground, neither did there appear

THE SUMMITS OF KARLIK TAGH

621

to be any water-courses which might carry the surplus of water,
during especially heavy rainfalls. Sairam Nor is probably formed
entirely by spring-water, which is counteracted by evaporation.
Although the natives would not use the water, we found that
its salinity was scarcely noticeable. The native story that ruins
are to be seen below the water, may be another proof of the
comparative recent formation of Sairam Nor,

APPENDIX C

THE SUMMITS OF KARLIK TAGH

As a guide to future travellers, and for any one who may be
urged by a desire to climb the unconquered peaks of Karlik Tagh,
I add this note and the accompanying diagrams, to show the
position and comparative altitude of the highest points of the
range. Further exploration — of an alpine nature — will alone
show to what extent my deductions are correct ; the adjoining
sketch may, however, stand as a groundwork, and the numbered
peaks as a standard, on which to base further work.

Fig. I shows the view from Hami, or Kumul, at a distance
of fifty miles from Peak No. II. It is only from such a distance

Fi^a

VIEW OF HIGHEST PEAKS OF KARUK TAGH FROM RIOCE SOUTH OF UPPER BARDASH VALLEY

■EDt 5H*

OUTLINE OF KARUK TAGH FROM KUMUL ( SO Miles distant ftwn highest peak)

622 APPENDIX

that a general view of the highest points can be obtained ; on ap-
proaching closer the outlying foot-hills hide all the peaks west of
No. VII, and add to the difficulty of taking rehable clinometrical
readings. From a point a few miles to the south of Peak No. VI,
and in a direct line between it and Hami — where the first sketch
was made — I obtained another clear view of the same peaks.
These two sketches prove to be almost duplicates of each
other.

From the first, I placed Peak II, as the highest point visible
on the south side of the range, although I had doubts as to Peak I,
for it seemed to lie so far back that it might have even equalled
No. II ; but a chance view of Nos. I, II, IV, and VI from the
Khamar Pass between the Edira and Bardash valleys, proved to
me that No. I was of considerably lower altitude. Peak I lies
at the head-waters of the Edira Valley, and from its two small
glaciers spring the two sources of the Edira River.

Peaks II, IIP, III, IV, V and VI are all reached by the
Bardash Valley, and all, with the exception of No. V, he in a
semicircle around the head-waters of the Bardash River, and
drain into it. The exact position of No. V remains undecided ;
it either stands on the watershed between Nos. IV and VII and
drains into an unexplored right affluent of the Karchamak, or
it is a high peak which lies entirely over the watershed {i.e. on
the north side).

The next group of peaks eastwards is composed of Nos. VII
and VIP, which, with VIP lying in between the two (but in-
visible from the positions at which the accompanying sketches
were made), form a semicircle around the head of the Khotun-tam
valley. The summit of Peak VII would be accessible from the
ridge which lies between the Khotun-tam and Karchamak
valleys, and a very extensive and instructive view of the alpine
region would be obtained if an ascent were made.

East of Peak VIP the range runs out in a straight, narrow,
serrated ridge to Peak IX, the most easterly summit visible from
the south. It keeps a very even altitude ; there are no cols or
passes, and only a few peaks stand out as landmarks distinguish-
able at a distance. Peak IX lies behind the highest source of
the Little Koshmak Valley; east of this the ridge extends for about

11—20

623

624 APPENDIX

four miles at an altitude just below that of perpetual snow.
Peak X, which we ascended to a height of 13,240 ft., lies over the
watershed on the north side, and is not visible from the south.
On the northern side there are many outlying peaks, — spurs of
the main ridge and equal to it in height. The most prominent
of these are Nos. XI, XII, XIII, XIV, and XV. Between Peaks
XIV and XV is an alpine region, which I was unable to fill
in in detail ; the configuration of this part of the actual
watershed remains doubtful. I think that there is a wide ex-
panse of snow-field, and that the range is deeper here than else-
where, which hindered me from recognizing — from the north —
my old points such as Peaks II to VII.

The culminating point of Karlik Tagh was estimated by the
first explorers at 12,000 ft. Kozloff, in 1895, put the altitude
of the highest peak at 15,000 ft. A later estimate was that
obtained by Stein's surveyor, who marked two principal peaks,
— which seem to correspond to my Nos. I and II, — and puts
their height, by clinometer, at 12,930 ft. and 13,070 ft. re-
spectively.

APPENDIX D

THE LIFE-ZONES OF NORTH-WESTERN MONGOLIA AND DZUNGARIA

The portion of Inner Asia comprising the countries described
in these volumes, forms a somewhat remarkable area as regards
the distribution of Asiatic flora and fauna ; it also contains
the lines of demarcation between the ranges of many different
species. Although the whole of the Yenisei basin, North-western
Mongolia, and Dzungaria are situated within one zoographical
area — the Palaearctic, yet the variety of altitude and climate
that they contain and the extent of latitude that they stretch
over, as well as the variety of flora they produce, allow the
existence of a remarkable variety of animal life. These regions
include the easterly range of many European and Western
Asiatic species, the southern limit of a great many Siberian varie-
ties, the northern range of some Chinese and Indian, as well as
the entire range of a few species peculiar to this part of Asia. As

625

626 APPENDIX

a whole, Mongolia has a representative fauna of the Central Asiatic
type ; but its northern edge, bordering on Siberia, includes a
considerable number of species peculiar to the temperate forests
of the northern Palaearctic region. This is especially noticeable
in the Uriankhai country, between the Syansk and Tannu-ola
ranges, which, although lying within the boundaries of Outer
Mongolia and being in itself a terrace between the Siberian
plain and Mongohan plateau, yet possesses a fauna and flora
entirely Siberian. Dzungaria has, on the whole, a Central Asian
fauna, but a few Siberian species range thus far into the heart
of the continent.

We can, first of all, draw a main dividing-line between typical
Siberian and Central Asian flora and fauna ; this will roughly
follow the southern limit of the forest-zone. The southern or
Central Asian portion of this division will again be subdivided
by the insular Tian Shan mountain-group, which forms in itself
a peculiar and isolated faunistic and floristic zone. Another
dividing-line is necessary between the Tian Shan and Altai, to
show the exact limits of the special types peculiar to each
region. The first great faunistic division to be delimitated is that
between Siberia and Inner Asia. In the course of our journey
we first passed the line of demarcation between these two areas
in the neighbourhood of the Tannu-ola Mountains. This water-
shed between Arctic and Mongolian drainage may be taken as
the junction of the two zones, although, of course, they overlap
and there is a broad neutral zone between them.

Broadly speaking, the Tannu-ola is the southern limit of such
species as the reindeer, moose, beaver, many fur-bearing
animals, squirrels, black-game {Tetrao tetrix), hazel-grouse
{Tetrastis honasia), and capercailzie {Tetrao urogallus); the same
range forms roughly the northern limit of such Central Asian
types as the wild-sheep {Ovis ammon), wild-horse {Equus prjeval-
skii), marmots, and a host of small mammals.

The neutral zone, of which I spoke, consists mainly of moun-
tain-groups such as the Altai and Turgun, or Kundelun, which
extend southv.-ards into Mongolia across the watershed of Arctic
drainage ; these by their altitude compensate for the more
southern latitude. On these mountains we find that the ranges

LIFE-ZONES 627

of many Siberian and Mongolian species overlap. The Turgun
Range, for instance, is more truly Mongolian than the Tannu-
ola. This forms the northern limit of the yak ; it is here we
first meet with the ovis amnion, — although it formerly ranged
on to the southern slopes of the Tannu-ola; here, too, begin the
snow-leopard, the marmot, and the snow-cock. Siberian types
are represented by the ptarmigan {Lagopus rupestris), which
ranges thus far over the Tannu-ola.

The Altai Range is difficult to define as belonging exclusively
to either faunistic zone ; but I should continue the line of de-
marcation, which runs the length of the Tannu-ola, along the
Little Altai and thence in a south-easterly direction along the
crest of the Great, or Mongolian Altai to the head-waters of the
Black Irtish. In other words, all that part of the Altai which
drains into the Arctic should belong to the Siberian, whilst the
remainder should represent a portion of the Mongolian zone. The
Urungu basin should probably be included in the former. Beyond
the Altai, in a south-westerly direction, lies the lowland of Dzun-
garia, which connects the plains of Siberia with the plateau
of Mongolia, and across which continues the line of demarcation
between the two main life-zones, as well as another secondary
line to show the subdivision between Altai — whether Mongolian
or Siberian — and Tian Shan fauna.

The first and most important line, which we have so far traced
to a point on the crest of the Altai somewhere between the
sources of the Black Irtish and the Urungu rivers, now continues
across the central plains of Dzungaria, cuts in between the
mountain groups of Barlik and Urkashar on the south and the
Sair and Tarbagatai on the north ; and runs westwards into
Northern Turkestan. This line forms the southern limit of the
Siberian larch tree (Larix sihirica) and the northern limit of
the Chukar partridge {Caccahis chukar) and the Tian Shan spruce
{Abies schrenkiana). But most forms peculiar to the Tian Shan
area stop at the Ala-tau, and do not extend their range across
the Dzungarian depression, or Gate, to the Barlik Mountains.

Practically the whole of Dzungaria belongs to the Central
Asian zone, which includes the subdivisions of the Tian Shan
and Mongolia. The plains form a neutral ground for some widely

628 APPENDIX

distributed species, whose ranges here meet and overlap. The
saiga antelope {Saiga tartarica) of the Russian and Siberian
steppes, for instance, extends across Dzungaria as far as Long. 92°
East, but no farther ; the wild-ass {Equus hemionus) also ranges
as far eastwards, its place being taken farther east by Prjevalsky's
wild-horse. On the 90° meridium of Longitude, Prjevalsky found
that the ranges of these two overlapped.

The southern border-range — the Tian Shan, together with
the Ala-tau and Barlik groups, constitute an isolated area in the
midst of the Central Asian zone, while in the east the Altai Mongo-
lian foims another subdivision which needs careful demarcation.

A certain amount has been written and much conjectured, as
to the probability of the "overlapping" of the Altai and Tian
Shan fauna and flora in the ranges of Barkul and Karlik Tagh.
The traveller Grum-Grjimailo considered that he had estab-
lished a sure proof that the Barkul and Karlik Tagh Mountains
should be distinguished from the Tian Shan and included in the
Altai system (see Geog. Journ., vol. xiii, 1891) ; but I think that
his evidence goes to prove that these ranges form a neutral
ground between the two main mountain-systems. Orographically
they belong to the Tian Shan group, but, from the point of view
of their flora and fauna, they show affinities relating to both
systems.

The Altai and Tian Shan mountain sj^stems approach each
other to within a hundred miles, the intervening space being
occupied by high steppe, which forms the first rise from the
Dzungarian lowlands to the Mongolian plateau. This eastern
extension of the Tian Shan chain, which approaches so closely
to the Altai Range and which extends far into Mongolia before
disappearing in the Gobi Desert, is composed of the ranges
called the Bogdo-ola, Barkul, and Karlik Tagh, and, still farther
east, the Ati Bogdo. It is somewhere amongst these mountains
that the true dividing-line exists between the two subdivisions.

The western portion of this line has been already deter-
mined as lying between the Barhk-Urkashar and the Tarbagatai
groups ; thence it runs across the plains towards the south-east ;
on reaching the Baitik Bogdo the line divides into two, which
enclose a neutral zone before meeting again in the Western Gobi.

LIFE-ZONES 629

The southern of these two branch-Hnes cuts across the Tian Shan
system at the Tou-shui plateau between the Bogdo-ola and
Barkul ranges, and thence passes along the south of the Karlik
Tagh. The northern line runs south of the Baitik Mountains —
the almost isolated range between the Urungu River and Bogdo-
ola Mountains, and thence continues towards the east, either
embracing the Ati Bogdo in the neutral zone or leaving it to the
Altai-Mongolian subdivision. All to the north of these lines
is Altai and Mongolian, to the west and south is Tian Shan and
Chinese Turkestan fauna ; but the neutral zone, thus enclosed,
has a strange mixture of both fauna and flora. This area is com-
posed chiefly of the Barkul and Karlik Tagh ranges ; the most
easterly portion — the Ati Bogdo — must remain in an indefinite
position, for I have not been able to find sufficient details re-
garding its fauna to place it definitely within either.

Of the fauna of the Karlik Tagh, the wild-sheep is of a species
peculiar to the Tian Shan {Ovis ammon karelini), and it is the
same with the wapiti, ibex, and roe-deer ; the snow-cock and
rock-partridge are also Central Asian varieties. The forests of
the Karlik Tagh are chiefly composed of the Tian Shan spruce
{Abies schrenkiana). But, on the other hand, the presence of
larch {Larix sibirica) gives the Karlik Tagh the aspect of Altai
scenery ; and the existence of certain mammals, — such as picas,
or tailless hares {Ochotona), and mole-rats [Ellobius) of species
closely allied to those of the Altai system — show the affinity that
the fauna of this region has to that of the Altai. The brown
partridge of this region is the Mongolian variety (Perdix daurica).
The Ati Bogdo Range, which lies about 180 miles to the
east of Karlik Tagh, — but is only connected with it by a succes-
sion of very low desert-hills, — probably belongs to the neutral
zone. Kozloff , the Russian explorer, reports finding larch forests,
wild-sheep, and roe-deer in this range ; and in all probability
these would prove to be of the same varieties as found on Karlik
Tagh. Altai fauna extends even farther to the east, for it
follows the long, low extension of spurs which run out in an
east-south-easterly direction from the main Altai to the neigh-
bourhood of Lat. 44° and Long. 401.° All these ranges contain
the wild-sheep and the snow-cock peculiar to the Altai and North-

630 APPENDIX

west Mongolia. There is a westerly delimitation to the neutral
zone in a hard-and-fast line drawn across the Tou-shui (or Chi-
ku-ching) plateau between the Barkul and Bogdo-ola ranges,
which defines the beginning of true Tian Shan flora and fauna.

If we take the principal varieties of animal-life separately,
and show their distribution, it will be seen how these zones con-
form or overlap, as the case may be. The wild-sheep, for instance,
which are so typical of the large fauna of Asia, range, in suitable
localities, over the whole of the area described, with the exception
of the Upper Yenisei basin. The Mongolian zone holds the
Ovis amnion typica, the Tian Shan has only the Ovis ammon
karelini, while a small variety, Ovis ammon sairensis, exists on
the isolated ranges mid-way between the habitats of the other
two, namely, the Barlik, Urkashar, and Sair Mountains, which lie
on either side of the main divisional line between Siberian and
Central Asian fauna, in Northern Dzungaria. Of the goat tribe,
ibex (var. Capra sibirica typica) are found over the whole area
from Siberia to the Tian Shan, those belonging to the central
part of the latter region being distinguished as a variety —
C. sibirica almasyi.

The deer are well represented throughout the entire region,
but the peculiarly local distribution of forests in Inner Asia causes
their habitats to be unevenly scattered and spasmodic. Wapiti
[Cervus canadensis asiaticus) and roe-deer {Capreolus pygargus)
exist all over the Upper Yenisei basin and in the forested
Altai ; while closely allied varieties {Cervus canadensis songarica,
or eustephanus, and Capreolus pygargus tianshanicus) range over
the northern forested slopes of the Tian Shan, Ala-tau, and
Barlik ranges, and extend eastwards as far as does the forest.
The large wapiti probably stop at the Karlik Tagh, but the
roe-deer range to the Ati Bogdo. Another species {Cervus
cashmirianus yarkandensis), whose main habitat is Chinese
Turkestan, ranges into Dzungaria, being found in the jungles
of the Manas River. Musk-deer are found only in the mountains
of the Upper Yenisei basin ; the range of the reindeer, as described
in Chapter VIII, does not extend southwards beyond the walls
of this basin. Another northern form, the beaver, still exists
in the uppermost sources of the Yenisei, and, it is said, in the

LIFE-ZONES 631

highest tributaries of the Black Irtish in the Mongolian Altai.
Many other fur-bearing animals range as far south as the main
dividing-line between Siberian and Central Asian fauna, but no
farther ; although in some cases they turn up again, in sHghtly
modified forms, in the Tian Shan.

The gazelle are typical of an arid climate, — such as Inner Asia
possesses, — and they are generally to be met with in the open
plains south of the main dividing-hne. In Mongoha, however,
a mountain — or rather a plateau — variety exists, and this gazelle
{Gazella gutturosa) extends its range northwards on to the high
steppes such as exist in Siberia at the head-waters of the Ob
River. The common gazelle of the region is the Goitred Gazelle
{Gazella suhgutturosa) and its allies, which have a wide range
from Western Asia to Mongolia. Bear are found wherever
there is sufficient forest-area, and wild-pig range over the entire
region both on plain and plateau ; of both these forms, however,
the Tian Shan zone produces slightly different varieties. Tiger
are met with only in the most southerly portion of the region,
and are of the small, thin-haired Central Asian type. The long-
haired Manchurian tiger does not range into the neighbourhood
of the Yenisei basin, which is the only portion of our region
which might be expected to hold it. Snow-leopards are to be
found on all mountain ranges as far north as the Turgun and
Altai.

Of bird-life, there is not much to record, except regarding
the ranges of resident, non-migratory species, such as the game-
birds. From a collection of about 256 species, I scarcely found
a variety that I had not already collected in Russian Turkestan,
this alone showing how truly Central Asian is the fauna of Dzun-
garia. The distribution of the game-birds shows, however, certain
distinctive areas. The northern forests hold the capercailzie,
the black-cock, the hazel-grouse, and on the hill-tops the
ptarmigan. Of these only the black-game extend to the Tian
Shan, the ptarmigan reach to the northern part of the Mongolian
Altai, the capercailzie and hazel-grouse go no farther south-
wards than the Upper Yenisei basin.

The dividing-line between the Tian Shan and Altai fauna
demarcates the northern limit of the Chukar partridge, but the

632 APPENDIX

Brown partridge {Pcrdix perdix) extends its range from Siberia
into the Central Asian zone, being found as far as the Bogdo-ola
Range. The Bearded, or Daurian Partridge {Perdix daurica),
ranges from its true habitat — Mongoha, northwards into the
Siberian zone and southwards into the Altai-Tian Shan neutral
zone. Pheasants are, of course, found in all suitable localities
throughout the entire area. The Mongolian pheasant inhabits
the Hi Valley and all the Dzungarian river-valleys, such as the
Borotala, Manas, and Irtish ; while a rare variety {Phasianus
hagenbecki) is found on the lower Kobdo River in North-west
Mongolia. Two varieties of snow-cock are found within the
region, one — Tetraogallus altaiciis, is peculiar to the Mongolian-
Altai zone, and the other — Tetraogallus himalayensis, ranges
into the Tian Shan and Altai-Tian Shan neutral zone, from its
true habitat, the Himalayas.

APPENDIX E

TERMS OF THE RUSSO-MONGOLIAN PROTOCOL '

The following is a careful precis of the agreement, signed on
November 3rd, 1911, between Russia and the Mongolian Princes,
with regard to the rights and privileges of Russians in Mongolia
and Mongols in Russia.

(i) Russian subjects shall, as in the past, have the right
freely to live and travel in all parts of Mongolia, to conduct
business, estjfcblish factories, and arrange affairs with all in-
dividuals or companies, official or private, whether of Russian,
Mongol, Chinese, or other nationality.

(2) Russian subjects shall, as in the past, have the right to
import and export at all times all products and manufactures of
Russia, Mongoha, China, and other countries duty free, and
to conduct free trade exempt from all duties and taxes.

(3) Russian banks shall have the right to establish branch
banks throughout Mongolia, and conduct banking business with
all individuals and companies.

^ As published in the Morning Post of December 20th, 1912, and in-
serted here by kind permission of the editor.

THE RUSSO-MONGOLIAN PROTOCOL 633

(4) Trade can be conducted for ready money or on credit,
but in the case of credit transactions the Mongol Princes or the
Treasury cannot be held responsible for the credit of private
individuals.

(5) No monopoly can be established either in commerce or
manufacture. The Mongolian authorities shall not prevent
Mongols or Chinese from doing business with Russian subjects,
nor prevent their employment in Russian commercial industrial
enterprises.

(6) Russian subjects shall have the right to lease or buy
land in all towns and cities throughout Mongolia and establish
commercial enterprises and manufactures, build houses, stores,
and go-downs, and lease vacant land for agricultural purposes.
Pasture-lands and places set apart for religious purposes are
not included.

(7) Russian subjects are free to arrange with the Mongolian
Government concessions regarding mining, forestry, fishing,
and other business enterprises.

(8) The Russian Government shall have the right to establish
Consulates in Mongolia wherever it is deemed necessary after
consultation with the Mongolian Government. The latter shall
have a corresponding right to appoint Mongolian representatives
along the Russian frontier.

(9) Wherever Russian Consulates are established or Russian
business is conducted, Russian trade settlements can be estab-
lished, which will be under the administration of Russian Consuls,
or, where there are no Consuls, under the administration of the
senior Russian merchant.

(10) Russian post offices can be established throughout
Mongolia, with postal services to the Russian frontier, at the
cost of the Russian Government.

(11) Russian Consuls shall have the right to use Mongolian
post-stations without charge provided that the number of horses
to be furnished by the Mongols shall not exceed one hundred
monthly nor the number of camels thirty.

(12) All Mongolian rivers flowing into Russian territory and
the branches thereof are open to navigation by Russian subjects
with Russian vessels. The Russian Government will assist the

634 APPENDIX

Mongolian Government in the conservation of these rivers and
the improvement of navigation by buoying and lighting, and
Russian subjects shall, in accordance with Article 6, be granted
areas on river frontages as stopping-places for Russian vessels,
and can there build wharves and go-downs.

(13) Russian subjects desiring to transport goods and live
stock shall have the right to use rivers and roads in Mongolia,
and with their own money can build bridges, and establish ferries,
and collect fees from the people using these bridges and ferries.

(14) Grazing-lands in Mongolia shall be reserved for the use
of liocks belonging to Russian subjects when migrating, and
such lands can be used for three months without payment, after
which period charges can be made.

(15) All rights and privileges enjoyed hitherto by Russian
subjects along the frontier for hunting, fishing, and the cutting
of grass in Mongolia are confirmed.

(16) In regard to the procedure to be followed in connexion
with business and other agreements between Russian subjects
and Mongols and Chinese, it is provided that property transfers
must be written and that the contracts must be submitted to
MongoHan officials and the Russian Consuls for approval. If a
dispute arises in a case it must be submitted to arbitration. If
it is still unsettled, the case must be sent before a mixed tribunal,
which shall be permanent where a Russian Consul is stationed.
In other places a temporary tribunal shall be organized by a
Russian Consul and the Mongolian Prince in whose territory the
defendants reside, each side engaging to execute the findings of
the Court, the Russian Consul on Russian subjects, and the
Mongol Prince on the Mongols or Chinese.

(17) The protocol takes effect from the date of signature.

The protocol is drawn up in Russian and ]\IongoHan in dupli-
cate, and the copies were signed, sealed, and exchanged at Urga
on the 24th day of the last month of autumn of the second year
of the Mongohan Sovereign, or November 3rd, 1911.

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II — 21

ERRATA FOR "MAP OF THE KARLIK TAGH AND
BARKUL MOUNTAINS"

1. For Bagdash read Bardash.

2. Barkul Dawan or Koshete Dawan, 8,700 ft.

3. Cart-track leads from Kumul via this track to Barkul.

4. Marsh-land at eastern end of Tur Kul as at western end.

5. Ara-Tam should be close below contour- line representing 4,000 ft.

6. Altitudes, 13,686 and 13,282 should be denoted 13,686'=, and 13,282°

(clinometer reckoning) .

7. Peak, Alt. 13,240 ft. was ascended.

8. Glaciers exist at the other two main sources of the Bardash River.

9. The names of Narin, Koral, Edira, Bardash, and Khotun-tam give

their names to the rivers on which they are situated.

10. The river to the west of the ShopoU Valley is the Narin.

11. For Bogdo-olo read Bogdo-ola,

640

INDEX

Abakan, 41, 43, 45 ; steppe, 108 ;
route from, to Kemelik, 113 ;
early inhabitants of, 198, 200 ;
tribes of, 205 ; cattle of, 238

— Tartars, 45, 240 ; af&nities of
with Uriankhai, 200, 201 ; dwel-
lings of, 208, 209

— district, as early home of Kirei,

352
Abd-ul-Aziz, 618
Abies schrenkiana, 418, 516 n., 625 ;

on Karlik Tagh, 629
" Accordion " folding boat, 87
Achinsk, 32 ; we leave, 35 ; country

south of, 35, 36
Achit Nor, 22, 273, 277, 278, 286,

287, 289, 321-3 ; wild-fowl of,

321, 322
Adak, 486 ; visited by Potanin, etc.,

496 ; astronomical position of,

496 ; visited by Kozloff, 498, 521,

522
Adrianoff, A. B., 6, 21, 65, 72, 164,

170, 201, 207, 221 ; publication,

635

^olian action, 468-9

Agriculture, 70 ; in Minnusinsk dis-
trict, 41 ; in Upper Yenisei basin,
161, 173, 183-4, 275; at Ulankom,
275 ; in Emil Valley, 407 ; in Dzun-
garia, 458 ; at Kumul, 482 ; in
KarHk Tagh, 500-502, 503-504,
506-507, 508, 511, 512, 525 ; in
Barkul basin, 527,528 ; on Manas
River, 542, 543

Aimak, territorial division, 202, 207

Ainar River, 122

Aji Bogdo, 452, 519

Aksai, plateau, 556 ; wild-sheep of,

569

Aksu, 579

Ala Kul, 411-12, 413, 416, 417, 418 ;

saiga near, 590
Ala Shan, 23
Ala-su Valley, 125, 126, 137, 140,

213, 216

Ala-tau Mts. as portion of northern
border-range of Dzungaria, 379,
411, 415, 418, 554 ; routes across,
556 ; southern slopes of, 556-7 ;
western position of, 559 ; wild-
sheep of, 569 ; game of, 630
Ala-tyube, island in Ala Kul, 413
Algiak Pass, 92, 105, 113, 167
Altai, 4, 22, 23 ; explorations of
Sapoznikoff in, 24 ; Russian, or
Little, 24 ; Mongolian, or Great,
24, 326 ; eastern extremities of,
346-7 ; altitude of, 371 ; first
impression of Mongolia, 371-2 ;
as great natural boundary, 372 ;
ease of passes across, 372 ; pre-
cipitation on, 372, 380 ; length of,
378 ; importance of to Dzungaria,
378 ; Kran Valley of, 397-9 ;
passes across between Kobdo and
Guchen, 451 ; flora and fauna of,

625

Altai-Tian Shan divide, 347, 462-3,
497, 626 ; as birthplace of Kir-
ghiz race, 352 ; as Kirei territory,
357 ; beauty of, 361-2 ; climate
of, 329 ; Uriankhai of, 325, 326-7

Altai-Tian Shan region, 4

Altan Khan, 205

Altitudes of Minnusinsk Steppe, 41 ;
of Aradansk, 85 ; of Syansk
passes, 92, 113 ; average of Upper
Yenisei basin, 99 ; of mountains
sorrounding, loi, 102 ; of Tannu-
ola, loi, 190, 195, 264 ; peaks,
134 ; tree-limit on, 138 ; of
Saklia Valley, and range, 263,
264 ; of Turgun Mts., 281, 283,
284, 286

Amazon River, 39

Amil River, 43, 45, 46 ; rise and fall,
79, 167 ; width of, at Petro-
pavlovsk, 91 ; route from, to
Sisti-Kem, 113

Amursana, leader of Dzungars, 386

Ancestor-worship, 61, 243

641

642

INDEX

Ancient routes, 114, 115

An-hsi-chow, 474, 494, 514

Antiquities of Southern Siberia,
the Upper Yenisei basin, 24, 55-
72 ; North-west ^longolia, rock-
drawings, 56 ; unwrought stones,
monoliths, 57-60, 66-7 ; stone-
eftigies, 57-64 ; tumuh, 65-72 ;
in Kumul district, 499 ; in Karlik
Tagh, 504-5 ; at Barkul, 532

Arabia, 6

Arabs, 28

Arab influence on China, 613-14

Aradansk Range, 42, 85, 96, loi

Ara-Tam, 491 ; Buddhist remains
at, 477, 504 ; visited by Stein,
498 ; as summer resort of the
Khan, 504-5

Aridity. See Desiccation

Artcol Mts., 103

Asia, 5, 10 ; significance of, 9, 27-
29 ; contrasts of, 28, 29 ; Asia
versus Europe, 436

Asiatic Mediterranean, 48, 106, 417

Astine, 486

Atbushi, plateau, wild-sheep of, 569

Ati Bogdo, 519-520, 628 ; doubtful
position as regards life-zones of
Central Asia, 629 ; fauna and
flora of, 629-30

Atis, Mount, 520

Atkinson, T. W., 3 ; journeys in
Mongoha, 18, 278 ; approached
Barkul, 531 ; publication, 635

Ayar Nor, 543

Azaz River, 148

Azkiezkaia Steppe, 65

Bai, 486, 52 1 ; visited by Kozloff , 498

Bai Musa Pass, 406

Baikal, 31, 46, 73, 100, 116, 147, 197,

212 ; country to east of, as early

home of Kirei, 352
Bain-Kho, 464

Bain-Khairkhan, 325, 327, 348, 346
Baitik Bogdo, wild-sheep on, 346-

7 ; as Kirei territory, 359 ; wells

of, 452 ; Torguts of, 360, 391 ;

routes to, from Guchen, 457 ;

description of, from Kirei sources,

462-3 ; as belonging to Altai

zone, 628-9
Ealkash, Lake, 417, 41 8 ; saiga

near, 590

Banking arrangements, 45
Bardash River, 504-5

— Valley, 505-10

— Village, 507-8 ; revisited, 526

— peaks at head of valley, 622
Barkul, 18, 19, 20, 22, 395 ; grazing

in vicinity of town, 452 ; horses
of, 452

— Basin, arrival at, 526 ; peculi-
arity of, 527 ; Kumuliks in, 528 ;
hydrography of, 528 ; sand-
dunes in, 529 ; horses of, 452,
53^-3 ; game of, 588-9

— Lake, meaning of name, 532 ;
salinity of, 533 ; strands of, 533

— Mountains, 470, 528 ; portion of,
belonging to Khan of Kumul,
491. 493 ; as seen from Kumul,
494, 499-500 ; forest on, 517,
529-30 ; as belonging to Kaxlik
Tagh " neutral zone," 628-30

— Pass, 526

— Town, superseded by Guchen,
451 ; distance between, and
Guchen, 451 ; astronomical posi-
tion of, 496 ; early visitors to
district, 495-9 ; routes from,
and Kumul, 526 ; arrival at, 530 ;
importance of, 530 ; bad reputa-
tion of, 531-2 ; we leave, 533

Barlik Mts., 4, 23, 389, 410, 411,
411 n, 414, 417, 418, 541, 548;
as Kirei territory, 359, 360 ; as
northern border-range of Dzun-
garia, 379 ; character of, 551 ;
as portion of dividing-line be-
tween Siberian and Central Asian
life-zones, 627-8
Barmen Mts., 273, 277, 286
Basins : Upper Yenisei basin, 2, 94-
117 ; Kossogol, 32, 100, 116, 201 ;
UbsaNor, 192, 205, 224, 261, 266,
273, 277, 285 ; Achit Nor, 273,
277, 278, 286, 287, 289
Bassett Digby, cited, 236 n.
Bear, in Borotala, 559-60 ; in Urta
Saryk, 576 ; in Mongolia and
Dzungaria, 631
Bearded Partridge. See Daurian

Partridge
Beavers, 168, 179, 223,228; southern

limit of, 626, 630-1
Beg of Kumul, 503, 505-6, 530
Bei-Kcm, 32, 98, 103, 104, 107 ;
rapids on, 109, 161, 174-6

INDEX

643

Bei-Kem, Upper, scenery of, 145 ;
routes from, to Siberia, 147, 148;
scenery near Skobieff, 156 ; popu-
lation of, 202 ; tribes of, 237 ;
religious ceremony in, 247-50 ;
barrier between Upper and Lower
161

— Khua-Kem region, 157, 159, 212

Belju Pass, 525

Belka, dog, 123

Bell, Col. Mark, visits Kumul and
Barkul, 497 ; publication, 635

Belota, 325, 327, 347

Biakoff, 185

Bibliography, 635-9

Biddulph, H. M., 570, 571

Biisk, 271, 322, 323

Birch-bark, 221, 229

Bird-life in Upper Yenisei basin,
140, 321, 407, 631-2

Bishbalik, 383

Black Art. See Shammanism

Blackcock, 628, 631

Black Irtish. See Irtish

Black River, 88

Blandford, Dr., 567 ^

Bretschneider, Dr., 615

Bodkhon-Khalat, 262, 263, 265

Bog art River, 87

Bogdo-ola, 4, 25, 285, 358, 359, 378 ;
desired by Kirei, 360, 361, 367,
460 ; first sight of, 443 ; northern
slopes of, 463-6 ; eastern end of,
465, 467, 497 ; explored by
Grum-Grjimailo, 497 ; inhabit-
ants of, 464-6 ; importance of, to
Dzungaria, 535 ; distance to be
seen from, 535 ; myths concern-
ing, 536 ; climate of, 536, 537-8 ;
alpine lake of, 537 ; early ex-
ploration of, 537 ; to, from
Guchen, 537-9 ; topography of,
540-1 ; altitude of highest peaks,
540-1 ; glaciers of, 540-1

Bogdo-ola Lake, 538-9, 540

Bombay, 4

Bonin, C. E., 445 ; publication.

Boots, Uriankhai, 219 ; Kirghiz,

369

Borashay Pass, 114, 115, 194-5, 264
Borodaile, A. A., 23 ; publication,

635
Boro-Khoro Range, 428

Borotala Valley, 4, 381, 400, 420,

437 ; Charkhars of, 391-3 ;
we arrive at, 552 ; character of,
553. 555 ; we travel up, 556 ;
forests in, 556 ; nature of northern
side, 556-7 ; hunting in, 556-
69 ; wolves in, 557, 55S ; bears.
559-60 ; lack of inhabitants,
500 ; good sheep-horns obtained
in, 565-6, 509 ; wild-sheep of,

561-74. 5^^. 569-71. river of,
566 ; pheasants of, 632

Borstan, 464-5

Bouragut. See Golden Eagle

Bows, 226-7

Broomhall, M., cited, 614-15 ; pub-
lication, 635

Buddhism, amongst Uriankhai, 151,
192-4, 200 ; amongst Mongols,
311-14, 316, 317; as compared
with Islam, 363-4 ; Buddhism
versus Islam, 362-6, 365-7 ; in
Kumul, 477-8 ; remains of, in
Karlik Tagh, 504-5

Bulon-tokhoi, 401

Buran, wind, 413, 414-15

Buriats, 33, 69, 201, 203 n., 317;
horse sacrifice amongst, 247

Burkark, saiga, 591. See refer-
ences under Saiga

Caccabis chukar, 627

Camels, 172, 179, 223 ; transport

by, 405 ; cost of hire in Dzungaria,

405 ; usefulness of, 455
Campbell, C. W., cited, 224-5 »

publication, 635
Camul. See Kumul
Canoes on Upper Bei-Kem, 146,

158 ; on Chulim, 35
Capercailzie, 132, 179, 626, 631
Capra sibirica almasyi, 630 ; typica,

630
Capreolus pygargus, of Mongolia

and Dzungaria, 630 ; of Tian

Shan, 630
Caravan by camel, trans-Gobi ser-
vice, 452 ; described, 453-5
Caravanserai, on Chinese high-roads,

434
Carpini, John de, cited, 12, 253,

254, 276 n., 286 n., 304, 406, 411

Carruthers, D., 327, 340, 341, 343,

344. 347. 556-7. 561. 562, 566,
568, 569, 575, 577, 585, 596
Cathay, 10, 13

644

INDEX

Caucasus, 4

Cervtc^ cashmirianus yarkandensis,

611, 630
— canadensis asiaticus, 630; son-

garica or eusiephanus, 630
Chagan-bugazi Pass, 345
Chagan-bulak Pass, 517, 526, 527
Chagan-gol, Valley and River, 325,

3^7. 349. 350
Chagan Nor, 324
Chagan-oba IMountains, 389, 411
Chagatai, son of Jenghis Khan, 3S5
Cha-Kul, 43, 107, III, 154, 203 ;
distance from, to Krasnoyarsk,
no; to Minnusinsk by river,
no ; temperature at, 112 ; road
northwards from, 113 ; road to
Kemchik from, 114; road to
Ubsa Nor from, 115
Chalon, P. F., 23 ; cited, 113, 165-6,
202, 206, 222, 247 ; publication,

635
Chantos, 389 ; in Borotala Valley,

392-3. 55^ ; in Urumchi, 395, 445 ;

in Sharasume, 397 ; meaning of

name, 397 n. ; in Gomil Valley,

407 ; settlers in Dzungaria, 435-

6, 436 n., 404 ; in Djinko, 437 ;

in Eastern Chinese Turkestan,

470-1 ; in Barkul, 531 ; difference

in character of, and Chinese, 458

Chapsa River, 120, 121, 124, 130

— Range, loi, 135

— ascent of, 137

— Lake, 135

Charkhars, 389, 393, 400 ; history
of Borotala, 392 ; and Borotala,
391-3 ; two sections of, 393 ;
superior type of, 393 ; Amban of
Lower Borotala, 553 ; enter-
tained by Amban 's wife, 553 ;
dress of women, 554 ; we visit
Amban of Upper Borotala, 554-5
Chebash River, 134, 142, 143
Chedan Valley, 104, 184 ; descrip-
tion of, 189 ; altitude of, 195
Chien-lung, Emperor, 383, 387, 391
Chigetai, or kulon, 607
Chi-ku-ching, basin, 468-70
China, 9 ; Great Wall of, 15, 427
Chinese, in N.W. Mongolia, 275,
262-3, 310 ; suzerainty over
Mongols, 308-9 ; Revolution of
1 91 1, 314 ; traders in Upper
Yenisei basin, 181 ; frontier

officials, 324-325 ; invasion of
Dzungaria, 376 ; massacred by
Dungans, 376 ; element, in
Dzungaria, 382, 395-6, 542-3 ;
destroy Dzungan power, 386-7,
476 ; begin to gain power in Far
Western China, 387-8 ; colonists
in Borotala Valley, 392-3 ; in
Sharasume, 397-8 ; differences
in character between settlers
and Chanto, 458-9 ; influence
on Kumuliks, 482-5, 488 ;
authority in Kumul, 476-7 ; in-
fluence on Taghliks, 508, 514 ;
influence on Karlik Tagh, 523 ;
colonists in Barkul basin, 528

Chinese carts, 428-9 ; cost of line
between Kulja and Urumchi, 429

Chinese Imperial high-roads, 5, 426-
8 ; stages on, 429 ; traffic on, in
M'inter andsummer, 431-2 ; mono-
tony of, 433-5 ; traffic on, be-
tween Kulja and Urumchi, 442-3 ;
safety of, 448 ; guards of, 448

Chi-ning section of Charkhars, 393

Chokerok, range, 85, 92

Christianity, effects of on Sham-
manism, 241, 255

Chudes, 49, 65

Chuguchak, from Sharasume to,

395. 399. 400. 439, 443 ; route
from, to Zaisan, 406 ; arrival at,
408 ; description of, 408 ; popu-
lation of, 408 ; importance of
position on frontier, 409 ; route
east and west from, 409-10 ;
routes from, to Kulja, 409-10 ;
cost of transport from, to Kulja,
410 ; frontier route from, to
Kulja, 411 ; from, to Urumchi,
542 ; to Shi-Kho, 541-2, 547

Chukar Partridge, 418, 627

Chulim River, 35, 49 ; tumuli on
steppe, 66

Church and Phelps, Messrs., 580 ;
publication, 635

Clementi, C, 25 ; astronomical
position for Kumul, by, 496 ;
visits Kumul, 498

Climate of Minnusinsk district, 40,
76, 79 ; of Upper Yenisei basin,
112, 161, 184 ; of N.W. Mongolia,
254-6, 261 ; of Mongolia, 292-3 ;
of Karlik Tagh, 512, 513-14,522,
523 ; of Bogdo-ola, 536, 537-8

INDEX

645

Climatic changes in Southern Si-
beria, 78

Clothes of Uriankhai, 219 ; of Kirei
Kirghiz, 362-3

Coal-mines in Central Dzungaria,

458
" Coir-Cham," 369
Collecting in Upper Yenisei basin,

132 ; in Mongolia, 289
Communication, lines of, 6, 10
Constantinople, Christian Emperor

of, II. See also Stamboul
Cultivation, 41, 70, 161, 173, 183-

4, 275 ; in Emil Valley, 407 ;

north of Guchen, 458 ; at Kumul,

482 ; in Karlik Tagh, 501-2, 503-

4. 5^^-7' 509. 511. 512, 525 ; in
Barkul basin, 527, 528 ; on
Manas River, 542, 543. See also
Agriculture

Cumberland, Major, 321 ; cited,
586-7

Curtin, Prof., 247 ; publication, 635

Dabachin Pass, 378

Dain Kul, 357, 358, 370, 372

Darkat, 200, 276 n.

Daurian Partridge, 629, 632

Dead Sea, salinity of, compared with

that of Tur Kul, 524
Deer in Mongolia and Dzungaria,

630
Deforestation, 104, 160, 178, 179
Demidofi, E., 327, 346 ; publica-
tion, 635
Deniker, J., publication, 635
Denudation in Karlik Tagh, 512
Desiccation, 178, 307; in Dzun-
garia, 381, 467-70
Difficulties of travel in Siberia, 86 ;

in Dzungaria, 544-6
Djinko, 437
Dogs, Uriankhai, 227-8
Dolto Nor, 325, 357, 358 ; we visit,

37O' 372
Dora-Kem Steppe, 104, 111,146, 148,

202

Drum, Uriankhai, 251 n.

Du Chaillu, 232

Du Halde, cited, 616

Dungans, revolt in Dzungaria, 376,
387, 452, 476, 477, 532 ; results
of, 443 ; colonists in Dzungaria,
382, 387, 394 ; capabilities of.

394 ; as carriers, 429 ; origin and
history of. Appendix A, 614-15 ;
characteristics of, 615 ; num-
bers of, 616-17; of Dzungaria,
618; origin and meaning of name,
618

Durbet, 3, 205, 266 n., 272 ; Dalai
Khan of, 267, 269, 270, 273, 278 ;
various ways of spelling, 267 n. ;
visit to Dalai Khan of, 268 ;
Wang of, 273-5 ; territory and
possessions of, 275-7

Dzungaria, 3, 4, 5, 9 ; exploration
of, 20-6 ; importance of, 10;
northern border-ranges of, 23 ;
origin of name, 374-5. 3^6 ; a
debatable land, 375 ; restless
state of, 375 ; boundaries of, 376 ;
topography of, 376-7 ; area of,
377 ; altitude of, 376-7 ; plains
of. 377 .' border-ranges of, 377-
80 ; as mountain-locked basin,
379 ; influences of border-ranges
on, 379-81 ; precipitation on
border-ranges, 379-80 ; desicca-
tion in, 381 ; hydrography of,
381, 467-70 ; fertile zone, 381 ;
early history of, 382-8 ; as por-
tion of Mongol Empire, 385 ;
repopulation by colonists, 387 ;
inhabitants of, 389-96 ; nomadic
zone of, 388-93 ; settled zone of,
393-5 ; towns of, 395 ; future of,
396 ; travel in, 400 ; administra-
tion of, 400 ; variety of inha-
bitants, 402 ; climate of, 410,
410 n. ; Southern Dzungaria, 424-
66 ; capital of, 443-7 ; postal ser-
vice of, 445-6 ; break of winter in,
438, 463, 466 ; sand-dunes of,
456-63 ; prevailing winds of,
413, 414 n., 460-1; contrasts
between, and Chinese Turkestan,
467-8 ; condition of, compared
with Turfan, 464 ; Central, 542-
6 ; forests in, 542 ; scenery in,
543 ; cultivation in, 542-3 ;
Central, mirages in, 543 ; native
guides in, 544-6 ; saxaul forest
in, 546 ; ravines in, 545-6 ;
game of, 580-610, 628 ; fauna
and flora of, Appendix D,

624 ; map showing life- zones of,

625 ; " Frontiers of Dzungaria,"
Tomsk, igi2, 635

646

INDEX

Dzungarian Gate, 409, 410 ; early
description of, 411 ; first sight of,
411-12 ; we cross, 412 ; prevailing
winds of, 413 ; description of,
415-19 ; as a natural dividing-line,
418-19, 627 ; kulon in, 605

Dzungars, 4, 267 n. ; origin of
name, 374, 386 ; extent of king-
dom, 386 ; site of capital of, 407

Dzusan Mountains, 411, 414

Ebi Nor, 413-14, 414 n., 417, 418,
438, 552, 605 ; stag near, 609

Eden, Richard, cited, 197 ; pub-
lication, 635

Edira Valley, 525, 526 ; forests in,
517; Bardash Pass, 622 ; peak
at head of valley, 622

Edsin Gol, 520

Ee, River, 148

Elegess Valley, 194, 203

Eleuth, branch of Western Mongols,
385 ; kingdom of, 385-6, 392

Elias, Ney, 3, 20 ; publication, 635

Eliutei, first ruler of Eleuths, 385

Ellobius, on Karlik Tagh, 629

Emil, R., 381, 382, 384 ; district,
385 ; valley, historical interest of,
406

Emir Tagh, 519

Enderti, River, 283, 286, 287

Environment, effect on character
of Uriankhai, 214 ; effect on
religious ideas of Uriankhai,
244. 245

Ergik Range, 107

Errata, 640

Eskimo, 217

Etherton, Lieut. P. T., 25 ; pub-
lication, 635

Equus hemionus typicus, 607 ;
range of, 627. See also Kulon

Equus prjevalskii, 608 ; northern
range of, 626

Europe, 10 ; and Asia, 436

Exploration, previous, 2, 3, 6 ; re-
sume of, of Mongolia, 10-26 ;
resume of, of Karlik Tagh, 495-9

Falj, or circular pit in sand-dunes,

529
Fauna of Karlik Tagh, 516-7, 517 n.
Finns, 8, 198, 217, 218

Fish in Upper Yenisei basin, 170,
171

Fishing in Upper Yenisei basin,
229 ; Uriankhai methods, 229

Flowers in Siberia, jj, 84

Food-supplies at Kushabar, 82 ;
at Cha-Kul, 182

Forests, south of Achinsk, 36, 86,
91, 190, 138, 178-9 281 ; in
Dzungaria, 382, 438, 462, 469-70,
542 ; in Karlik Tagh, 505, 509,
510, 512, 516-17, 627; in Ati
Bogdo, 521-2, 627; in Barkul
Mountains, 530 ; in Borotala,
556-7 ; saxaul, 459-60 ; dying
poplar, 468-70

Forestry, 77, 78

Fur, in Upper Yenisei basin, 168,
• 207, 223

Galdan, King of Eleuthes, 385-6

Gardner, E. A., cited, 56

Gashiun Nor, 520

Gazelle : Gazella gutturosa, hunting
of, 328 ; range of, 348, 631 ;
coloration of, 348-9

— Gazella subgutturosa, 582, 583,
631 ; hunting of, 583-90 ; colora-
tion of, 585 n. ; near Ebi Nor,
552 ; near Barkul, 532-3 ; of
Mongolia and Dzungaria, 631 ;
compared with G. gutturosa,

348-9

picticaudata, 349

prjevalskii, 349

Gesser Khan, 204

Glaciation in Upper Yenisei basin,

152, 130 ; in Turgun Mountains,

282, 283, 287 ; in Bogdo-ola,

540-1
Glaciers, in Karlik Tagh, 509, 518,

522 ; in Bogdo-ola, 540-1
Gobi, 4, 20, 23, 292, 307 ; northern

route across, 448-51
Goitred Gazelle. See Gazella sub-
gutturosa
Gold, in Upper Yenisei basin, 167,

221 ; in Mongolia, 316
Golden Eagle, or " bouragut." used

for hunting purposes, 358, 491,

586-7
Grano, J. G., 24 ; publication, 636
Gregorievski, 42
Grum-Grjimailo, G. E., 22 ; visits

INDEX

647

Bogdo-ola and Barkul region.
497 ; in Bogdo-ola, 537 ; on
flora and fauna of Karlik Tagh,
628 ; publication, 636

Griinwedel, Prof., 477, 499

Guchen, 22, 346, 395, 359 ; import-
ance of, 448-9, 451 ; trade and
route between, and Pekin, 448-
52 ; distance from, to Barkul,
451 ; replaces Barkul as trade
centre, 451 ; description of, 448-
56 ; sand-belt to north of, 456-63 ;
we finally leave, 463 ; grazing in
vicinity, 452 ; importance of for
caravans, 452-3 ; revisited, 534 ;
saiga-hunting near, 591

Hakas. See Kirghiz

Hakluyt Society publications, re-
ferences to, 636

Hami. See Kumul

Han-hai, 292

Hare, considered unclean in Dzun-
garia, 595

Hattak, 286 n.

Hazel-grouse, 132, 179, 626, 631

Herm, 59

History: early history of Minnu-
sinsk district, 48-55 ; of Russian
penetration of Siberia, 32-3 ; of
Uriankhai country, 198-9 ; of
Russian advance into Uriankhai
country, 163-7

— allusions to : of Mongol invasions,
296-306 ; of Dzungaria, 382-88 ;
of Kumul, 476-7

Himalayas, 5

Hoang Ho, 4

Hong-Kong, 25

Horses at Kushabar, 81, 83 ; at
Minnusinsk, 44 ; at Sofianofi,
173 ; Siberian, 185 ; Uriankhai,
228, 238-9, 239-40

Houng-miao-tzi, 444 n.

Howorth, H. H., 205, 384 ; cited,
114, 351 ; publication, 636

Hui-hui, Dungans, 615, 618

Hungary, 8, 12

Hunter, Mr., cited, 449

Hunting of reindeer, 129, 131,
136-7; of wild-sheep, 330, 331,
332, 334-9 ; in MaU Mountains,
551-2 ; in Borotala Valley, 556-
69, 572-5, 594 ; of gazelle, 328,

348, 583-90 ; of marmots, 342 ;
of ibex, 576-7 ; of saiga, 591-
601; of kulon, or wild-ass, 602-
6 ; of tiger, 610

Huntington, Ellsworth, 307 ; pub-
lication, 636

Huns, 8, II, 375, 383

Hwang yang (yellow sheep), 583

Hydrography of Dzungaria, 381 ;
of Kumul, 478-82

Ibex, in Karlik Tagh, 517, 517 ^■>
627 ; in Barlik Mountains, 551 ;
in Borotala Valley, 561, 564 ;
in Ala-tau, 566, 567 ; in Urta
Saryk, 576-7, 578 ; of Mongolia
and Dzungaria, 582, 630

Ice Age, in Siberia, etc., 48, 106

Idolatry, 243, 253-4

Hi Valley, 4, 378, 421, 431 ; coloniza-
tion of, 387 ; devastation in, 387 ;
winter in, 424-5 ; likened to val-
ley of Hoang Ho, 429-30 ;
Chinese settlers in, 436 n., Chanto
settlers in, 436 n.

Images of felt, 253-4 ; of stone,

254-5
Imil. See Emil

India, 8, 13, 22

Irdi Khe River, 229, 528

Irkutsk, 18, 32, 147

Irrigation, 183, 186, 381

Irtish, Black, 22, 23, 357 ; arrival
of Russians on, 33 ; as home
of Kirei, 358 ; we cross, 401 ; as
southern limit of the beaver, 631 ;
pheasants of, 632

Islam, 151, 269, 314 ; effects on
Shammanism, 241, 364 ; Islam
verstis Buddhism, 356-7, 362-6;
we first enter world of, 362 ; uni-
formity of, 364 ; Kirghiz pilgrims
to Mecca, 364-5 ; advance of, in
Asia, 365-6, 366-7 ; in Kumul,
477-8, 484-5 ; in China, 613-18

Iti Kul, 481

Jair Mountains, 541

Jenghis, Chief of Kirei, 359, 368-9

Jenghis Khan, 7, 8, 200, 203 ; as

suzerain of Uriankhai, 53, 204 ;

of Kirei, 295, 303, 306, 352-3.

310 ; as protector of Islam, 615
Jingis Mountain, 519

648

INDEX

Jordan Valley, compared with

Dzungarian Gate, 416
Journey, resume of, 2-5

Kalgan, 448

Kalmuk, 203, 388 ; origin and

meaning of name, 385 ; of Boro-

tala, 437-8
Kamchatka, 34
Kamsara River, 107, 126, 142, 143,

144. 154

Kandagai Valley, 189, 194-5

Kandat River, 134, 202 ; range,
92, loi, 135

Kandic, root, 220

Kanjik Range, 420, 432, 619-20

Kansu, 51

Kara-adir Range, 402

Karagatch River, 158, 161

Kara-Kapchin, 526

Kara-Kitai, empire destroyed by
Jenghis, 382, 384, 406

Karakorum, 4, 13, 21, 293 ; first
visitor to, 12

Karakorum Pass crossed, 579

Kara-Kuruk (gazelle), 583, 584

Kara-tuz, 82

Karauls, Mongol, 201, 260, 273

Karcharmak Valley, 510 ; peaks
at head of, 622

Karlik Tagh, 4, 25, 276 n., 400 ;
first view of, 471, 475 ; sandstone
foothills of, 479, 500-5 ; influence
of, on Taghliks, 508 ; rivers
of : Narin, 479, 501-3 ; Edira,
479 n. ; Bardash, 504, 505-10 ;
drainage from, 481-2, 502-3 ;
as eastern extremity of Tian
Shan, 494-5 ; previous ex-
ploration of, 495-9 ; affinity of
with Altai, 497, 516 n. ; Russian
Government map of, 498 ; anti-
quities of, 498-9 ; viewed from
Kumul, 499-500 ; orography of,
499-500, 510-11; Buddhist re-
mains in, 504-5 ; inhabitants of,
486, 506-8 ; moraines in, 508-9,
518, 522 ; glaciers of, 509, 518,
522 ; forests of, 505, 509, 510, 512,
516-17, 525 ; orography of alpine
region, 510 ; absence of sand-
stone foothills at eastern end of,
511 ; influence of this on Tagh-
liks, 511; spring in, 512, 513;
denudation of, 512 ; vegetation

in. 5°5> 509-12, 516-17 ; climate
of Eastern, 51 3-1 4 ; climate of
Northern, 522 ; rainfall of Eastern,
513-14, 513 n. ; Chinese element
in, 511, 514, 523 ; character of
region to south-east of, 514-15 ;
fauna of, 516-17, 517 n. ; immense
views from, 518-19 ; nature of
country between, and Ati Bogdo,
520-1 ; section of, from north to
south, diagram, 521 ; character
of Northern, 521-2 ; pass across,

525 ; character of inhabitants,

526 ; as portion of Khanate of
Kumul, 491 ; diagrams of sum-
mits, 621 ; map of alpine region
of, 623 ; alpine region of, 621-24 ;
estimates of altitudes, 624 ; wild-
sheep of, 347, 570 ; fauna and
flora of, 629 ; wapiti of, 630 ; as
"neutral zone," 628-30; gazelle-
hunting on south of, 585-6

Karmukchi, 486

Kasaks, distinction between, and
Kirghiz, 353 ; of Russian terri-
tory, 367 ; in Emil Valley, 407 ;
in Borotala, 560-1

Kash Valley, 423

Kashgar, 4, 25, 449, 579

Kashmir, 4, 579

Kastren, 200

Kazir River, 134, 202

Kemchik Bom, 108 ; description of,
no; as hindrance to navigation,
109

Kemchik Valley, 21, 23, 43, 102,
103. 345 '' tumuli in, 16, 67 ; as
original home of Kirghiz, 53, 351-
2 ; sources of, 108, 109 ; dryness
of, 112, 185 ; routes northwards
from, 113 ; routes westwards
from, 116; character of, 188,
191 ; unexplored portion of, 117 ;
tvpes of Uriankhai, 216 ; cattle
of, 238 ; Uriankhai inhabitants
of, 203, 208 ; Chedan tributary of
Kemchik River, 185-91, 195 ;
Biakoff on the river, 1 85 ; Kurias
in the, 194

Kem-Kemjuks, 203 n.

Kendikti Kul, 191, 345

Kergen Tash Pass, 406

Khalka Mongols, 520

Khamar Pass, 622

Khan of Kumul. See Mahsud Shah

INDEX

649

Khanate of Kumul, extent of, 491-

3 ; peculiar features of, 492
Kharkir, 266 n., 278, 282, 284-5
Khitans, 352
Kho-ching, section of Charkhars,

393. 554 n.
Kho-Kho-Koto, nomenclature of,

449 n., 449, 450

Khopuza, old town of, 458

Khotun-tam, 486, 502, 511 ; visited
by Stein's surveyor, 498 ; altitude
of, 511 ; valley, 512

Khua-Kem, 21, 32, 98, 103, 106, 107,
109, 202, 203, 212 ; river and
valley, connexion between and
Kossogol, 116; head- waters of,
116 ; upper portion of, 194

Kiabek sali, Kobuk sai, 391

Kiang of Tibet, compared with
Dzungarian wild ass, 607

Kirei, 3, 11, 314 ; we first enter ter-
ritory of, 350 ; various forms of
spelling, 351 n. ; early history of,
352-3 ; as subjects of Prester
John, 353-6 ; as Mohammedans,
356-7, 363-5 ; present distribu-
tion of, 357-61 ; western branch

of, 359, 400 ; visited, 549-50 :
winter migration of , 359 ; southern
section of, 359-60 ; taxation of,
361 ; we first meet, 362 ; char-
acter of, 362-3 ; compared with
Mongols and Buddhists, 362-4 ;
pilgrims to Mecca, 364-5 ; move-
ments of, 367-6 ; chief of, 368-9 ;
costumes of, 369 ; independence
of, 370 ; race-course belonging
to, 372, 389 ; distribution of
western branch, 389, 393 ; in
Kran Valley, 398, 401 ; in Ulun-
gur district, 403 ; of Sand district,
457 .' we visit, 457-63 ; on
Bogdo-ola, 465-6 ; movements of,
468
Kirghiz, 53, 203 n. ; increase of,
345, 404 ; race, 351 ; birth-place
of, 351-2 ; early history of, 352-
3 ; distinction between and
Kasaks, 353 ; as compared with
Mongols, 362-4 ; as Mohamme-
dans, 364-6 ; advance of, into
Chinese territory, 365-7 ; drive
out Uigurs, 383 ; in Dzungaria,
388, 389 ; hunting with golden
eagle, 586-7

Kirghiz Nor, 273, 274, 277

Kitan, or Liao dynasty, 384

Kizil-bashi Nor, 543

Kizil Tagh, 552, 605

Klementz, D., 21, 200, 217, 276;
publication, 634

Kobdo River, 23, 325 ; valley of
Upper, 358 ; beauty of, 361-2 ;
we traverse, 367-68 ; pheasants
of, 632

Kobdo, town, 20, 22, 23, 24, 113,
114, 115, 164, 273, 399, 450, 451

Kobuk Valley, 390, 391 n., 404 ;
inhabitants of, 404 ; Wang of,
404-5 ; Torguts of, 391, 391 n.,
404 ; to Chuguchak, 405, 408

Kojur Ridge, 406, 407

Koko Nor, 20

Koko-undur, 452

Kok-su Valley, 422

Koral Valley, 525

Kosh-agatch, 348

Kosheti-dawan, 496, 526

Koshmak Valley, 511 ; Little, 511 ;
expedition of, 516-18; peaks at
head of, 622

Kosho Valley, 389 ; River, 549

Kossogol Lake, 20, 21, 24, 32, 136,
201; Uigurs of, 199 ; inhabitants
of, 200 ; reindeer domesticated
near, 212 ; divide between, and
Baikal, 100 ; tracks between and
Upper Yenisei basin, 116

Kozloff, P. K., 3, 6, 15, 23, 520,
591 ; crosses Dzungaria, 456 ;
exploration in Karlik Tagh, 497-
8 ; estimates of altitude of Kar-
lik Tagh, 624 ; on Ati Bogdo,
629 ; publication, 636

Kulja, 4, 18, 25, 87, 343, 399, 400
we reach, 420 ; time to, from
Chuguchak, 420 ; arrival at, 42 1-2
winter at, 425 ; from, to Urumchi
roads, methods of transport at
428-9 ; we leave, 429 ; revisited
579 ; and finally leave, 579

Kulluk Pass, 526

Kulon, or wild-ass, 439, 460 ; near
Barkul, 532-3, 602 ; domesti-
cated, 602-3 ; hunting of, 603-
6 ; on foothills of Tian Shan, 602-

4 ; in Central Dzungaria, 604-

5 ; in Dzungarian Gate, 605-6 ;
native names of, 607; coloration
and measurements of, 606-7 ;

650

INDEX

range of, 608 ; compared with
Tibetan kiang, 607

Kran Valley, 373. 397. 398. 400. 4° i

Krasnoyarsk, 30, 37, 39, 44, no

Kriloff, R. N., 22, 113 ; cited, 183 ;
publication, 636

Kublai Khan, 297, 316

Kum Chaza, 438

Kummis, 220, 248

Kumul, 4, 22, 25 ; nomenclature of,
472 n. ; description of, 473-6 ;
our arrival at, 473-4 ; entertained
by Khan of, 473-4 ; importance
of situation of, 474-5, 476-7 ;
history of, 476-7 ; religion of in-
habitants, 477, 478 ; size of oasis,
478-9 ; hydrography of oasis,
478-82 ; lakes in district of,
480-82 ; cultivation at, 482 ;
Islam in, 484-5 ; Khan of, 484-
93 ; discontent amongst inhabi-
tants, 485-6; neighbouring oases,
486 ; subjects of the Khan of,
486-7 ; administration of, 487 ;
town of, 488 ; view from, 494 ;
early visitors to, 495-9 ; astro-
nomical position of, 496 ; we
leave for Toruk, 501 ; steppe to
north of oasis, 501 ; return to,
503 ; finally leave, 503 ; routes
from, to Barkul, 526 ; view of
Karlik Tagh from, 621-22

Kumulik, their rendering of Turki
words relating to water, etc., 480-
2 ; Chinese influence amongst,
482-5 ; dress of, 483 ; women,
483 ; morality of, 484-5 ; strict-
ness of, 484-5 ; discontent
amongst, 485-6 ; administration
of, 487 ; taxes imposed upon,
491 ; on Bogdo-ola, 465 ; in
Barkul basin, 530-1 ; compared
with Taghliks, 507-8

Kunde-Kuria, 267, 270, 281

Kundelun Mountains. See also
Turgun Mountains, 3 ; first sight
of, 266 ; valley, first approach to,
267 ; beauty of, 268 ; Dalai
Khan's residence in, 273 ; valley,
281 ; Peak, 282, 283, 287, 289 ;
fauna of, 345, 626-7

Kunguz Valley, 391

Kuntiza, 457, 459

Kun Valley, 389

Kurgans. See Tumuli

Kuria, of Upper Bei-Kem, 148 ;

description of, 150 ; of Chedan

Valley, 186, 192-4 ; of Upper

Kemchik, 191 ; of Upper Yenisei

basin, 194 ; Kunde, 267, 271 ;

influence of, on Uriankhai, 211 ;

as meeting-place for Uriankhai,

223
Kurtuski Pass, 113
Kushabar, 43, 46, 79 ; description

of, 75, 80 ; spring at, 75, 76, yj ;

forests near, 77 ; grazing rights

at, 80-1 ; supplies at, 82 ; start

from, 83
Kutaiba, Arab conqueror of Central

Asia, 614
Kutun River, 546
Kuz-imchik Range, 432, 619-20
Kuzu-Kem, 147
Kuzuk Khan, grandson of Jenghis

Khan, 385, 406

Lacoste, de, 24 ; publication, 637

Ladikh, 579

Lagoons, of Sairam Nor, 620

Lagopus rupestris, 627

Lakes in Upper Yenisei basin, 106,
108, 134, 135 ; LakeChapsa, 135 ;
Toji Kul, 152, 153 ; Sut Kul, 185 ;
Noyon Kul, 148 ; Ubsa Nor, 22,
16, 192, 205, 261, 266, 273-5, 277,
285, 221 ; Uriu Nor, 266, 273,
277, 286, 287 ; AchitNor, 22, 273,
277, 278, 286, 287, 289, 321-3;
Chagan Nor, 324 ; Kendikti Kul,
191, 345 ; in Kumul district,
480-2 ; Barkul, 532-3 ; Tur Kul,
523-4. 533 ; Bogdo-ola, 538-9 ;
Ala Kul, 411-13, 416-18 ; EbiNor,
413-14, 417-18, 438, 552, 605;
Kizil-bashi Nor, 543 ; Telli Nor,
381, 543 ; Ayar Nor, 543 ; Sai-
ram Nor, 420, 432, 438, 578, 560,
619-21

Lamaism, amongst Uriankhai, 206,
222, 225, 256, ; evils of, 270
amongst Mongols, 270 31 1-4

Lamas, 215

Lao-tzao-gou, 430

Larch, Siberian, 122, 178, 185, 190,
627 ; on Baitak Bogdo, 462 ; on
Karlik Tagh, 629 ; on Ati Bogdo,
629

Larix Sibirica, on Karlik Tagh,

INDEX

651

51611., 629; on Ati Bogdo, 627,

629
Lapchuk, 486
Laps, 198

Lecoq, Dr. von, 499
Leh, 4
Lhasu, 269

Liao, or Kitan, dynasty, 384
Liao-tun, 493
Life-zones of N.W. Mongolia and

Dzungaria, Appendix D., 624-32 ;

map of, 418, 623
Ling-yang, saiga, 591
Littledale, St. George, 327, 346, 548
Lodun, 493
Lydekker, 569

Magyars, 8

MahxnotBeg, Chief of Western Kirei,
359 ; made pilgrimage to Mecca,

365

Mahsud Shah, Khan of Kumul, 487 ;
power of, 487 ; entertainment by,
488-91 ; hospitality of, 487-8,
503 ; residence of, 4S8-9 ; garden
of, 489-90 ; country seats of,
491, 504, 507 ; extent of terri-
tory of, 491-3

Maili Mountains, 389, 411, 548, 551 ;
as Kirei territory, 359 ; charac-
ter of, 551 ; sheep-hunting on,

551-2

Makandaroff, G., 82, 320, 326, 330,
332, 341, 421

Manas, town, 395, 439 ; importance
of, 440-2 ; to Urumchi, 442-3 ;
Bogdo-ola viewed from, 535 ;
revisited, 541 ; routes north-
wards from, 541, 542 ; we leave
finally, 542

— River, 381 ; in summer flood,
440 ; importance of district, 441-
2, 541 ; character of, 541, 542 ;
forests on, 542 ; cultivation on,
542-3 ; summer rains by, 542 ;
we cross, 543 ; stag near, 609 ;
pheasants of, 632

Manchuria, 31, 35

Man River, 54

Maral, wapiti, 516

Marco Polo, 12, 15 n., 129, 477, 482,
485 ; cited, 197, 254, 472

Mardi tribe, 125, 202, 204, 208

Marmot, 271, 322-33, 342

Martianoff, N., 72

Matussovskd, 3, 18-19, 20 ; visits

Kumul, 495
Mecca, pilgrims to, from Central

Asia, 364-5 ; from Dzungaria,

550

Mengou-tsason, 266 n.

Merzbacher, G., 25 ; work in Tian
Shan, 456 ; in Bogdo-ola, 537, 539,
540 ; publication, 637

Metshin-ola, 493, 523, 528

Migrations, 8, 9 ; in Yenisei region,
50 ; Mongol, cause of, 295 ; Mon-
gol, influence of, 297 ; of Torguts
from Dzungaria, 390-1

Miller, J. H., 4, 90, 94, 121, 130, 135,
137, 140-7, 148, 150, 152, 154,
223, 224, 231, 247. 251, 264, 266,
289, 399, 414, 422, 439, 460, 466,

504. 5M> 529, 530. 534

Miller, T. P., 421

Mingyn, Mongols, 520 ; Gobi, 531 ;
saiga in, 591

Minnusinsk, 30, 32, 35 ; first view
of, district, 36 ; arrival at, 40 ;
temperature of, 40 ; rainfall at,
40 ; richness of district, 41 ;
population of, 42 ; early history
of district, 48 ; tumuli in dis-
trict, 65

Minnusinsk steppes, early inhabit-
ants of, 198, 200

Miroshnishenko, 402-3 ; publica-
tion, 638

Miskan Pass, 537

Mississippi River, 39

Mogoi, 521 ; visited by Young-
husband, 497

Mohammedan Chinese, 394. See
Dungans

Mohammedanism. See Islam

Mole-rats of Karlik Tagh, 629

Mongolia, 3, 5. 7- 9, 13 ; importance
of, 10 ; discovery of, 10 ; com-
munication with Europe, 10, 12 ;
our lack of knowledge of, i, 3, 25 ;
size of, 29 ; scenery of, 29 ; as site
of Uigur kingdom, 51 ; fort of,
plateau, y^ ; Russian traders in,
271, 322-33 ; administrative di-
vision of, 272 n. ; climate of,
286 n., 319, 321, 329, 361 ; desic-
cation in, 307 ; zones of, 292-3 ;
nature of, 292-3

Mongolia, North-western 23 ; signifi-

652

INDEX

cance of, 7 ; nomenclature of, 14,
15 n. ; recent changes in, 26 ; an-
tiquities of, 24; atmosphere of, as
compared with Siberia, 257-9 ;
nature of, 291-3 ; typical scene
in, 290; sheep-country of, 319;
wild-sheep of, 320, size and
weight of, 320, life-zones of,
624-32 ; map showing life-zones,
625 ; fauna and flora of, 624-32.
See also Ovis ammon

Mongols, 38 ; invasions, 1 1 ; signi-
ficance of race, 203, 296 ; inva-
sion of Europe, 299-301 ; strength
of, 303 ; of present day, 306-18;
under JNIanchu yoke, 308-9 ;
idolatry amongst, 253-4 ; as
compared with Uriankhai, 260 ;
of high rank, 270 ; of N.W. Mon-
golia, 293 ; Durbet, 267-81 ;
hardiness of, 333 ; independence
of, 340-41 ; as compared with
Kirei, 362-4 ; retrogression
amongst, 366-7; former conquest
of Dzungaria, 382 ; in Dzungaria,
388-9 ; former suzerainty over
Kumul, 476. See also Durbet

Monoliths, ^y ; distribution of, 58 ;
use of, 59

Moose, 157 ; southern limit of, 628

Moraines in Upper Yenisei basin,
130, 152 ; i!n Turgun Mountains,
283, 287 ; in Upper Kobdo Val-
ley, 371 ; in Karhk Tagh, 508-9,
518, 522 ; in Bogdo-ola, 538

Moslem element in China, 613-18.
See also Islam

Mosquitoes, 90, 143, 239

Mounds in Southern Dzungaria, 438

Moving sands, 460-2

Mukutai Plain, 403

I\Iu-li-kho, 463

Musk-deer, 157, 630

Naimans, 352, 382, 384

Nan-lu, 428, 475

Narin Kara, 402

Narin Kur, 530

Narin Valley, 479, 525-6, 506

Narin, village, visited by Kozloff,

498
Nature-worship, 241-50
Nears, Kumulik hunter, 592-8
Nestorian Christianity, 354, 356
Nay Elias, 3, 20, 25, 321

Nile, 39

Nom, 486, 521, 522 ; visited by

Potanin, 496 ; visited by Kozloff,

498
Nomadism, 208-11
Noyon Kul, 148
Noyon, of Uriankhai, 204-5 ; of

Toji tribe, 202, 204, 248-9 ;

of Kemchik tribe, 186-7, 203,

204-5
Novi-Udinsk, 147

Obos, 153, 245-7

Ob River, 20, 36, 39, 115

Obrutcheff, V. A., 23 ; publica-
tion, 635

Ochotona of Karlik Tagh, 629

Ogarka-ola Mountains, loi, 103

Ogodai. See Oktai

Oina, 203, 204, 212

Oinar, ditto Oina, 200

Oktai, son of Jenghis Khan, 385

Olon Nor, 458-9

Omsk, 18, 19

Omyl, or Emil, 406

Ondar, 200

Ordoos, 20

Orengai, 200

Orography, of Karlik Tagh, as seen
from Kumul, 500 ; of alpine re-
gion, 510 ; of foothills, 510 ; of
eastern portion, 511, 514-15

Ostiak, 32, 61

Ostrovsky, P. E., 23, 112; pub-
lication, 637

Oureghe, tax-unit, 207

Ovis ammon hodgsoni, 571

Ovis ammon karelini, 347 ; in
winter haunts, 439, 603-4 ; of
Borotala, 565 ; measurements of,
569 ; compared with Tian Shan
specimens, 569 ; distribution of,
569, 570, 628; horns of, de-
scribed, 570-1 ; coloration of,
571-2 ; of Karlik Tagh, 593-4, 629

Ovis ammonlittledalei, 566; distribu-
tion of, 570-1
Ovis ammon poli, compared with

Ovis ammon karelini, 570-1
Ovis, amtnon sairensis, 548, 549,

551--^. 630
Ovis ammon typica, 264, 626, 630 ;
size and weight of, 320 ; first
mention of, 321 ; habits of, 330,
331, 334-45. 52>7 '. hunting of.

INDEX

653

33 1 > 332, 334-9 ; size of Miller's
big ram, 339 ; coloration of, 339 ;
old horns of, 343 ; distribution of,

344-7
Ovis nigrimontana, 549

Paikoff, 23 ; publication of, 637

Pamir, 35

Paquet, Dr., 24 ; publication, 637

Paris, Matthew, 299

Partridge, of Karlik Tagh, 629 ;
of Chukar, 627-9, 631 ; Brown,
629, 632

Pavlinoff, 19

Pei-lu, 409, 428, 440, 583 ; passes
from, to Nan-lu, 447-8

Pekin, 4, 8, 20

Perdix daiirica, 629, 632

Perdix perdix, 632

Pereira, John, 421, 564, 568, 575,
596, 602

Pereira, Major G., 25, 373

Persia, 6

Petersen, Mr., 445, 449

Petropavlovsk, 86, 90, 92

Pheasants, in Kash Valley, 423 ; of
Mongolia and Dzungaria, 632

Piassetsky, P., 477, 495, 532 ; pub-
lication, 637

Picas, 140 ; of Karlik Tagh, 629

Pievtzof, 3, 20

Poland, 12

Poplar forest, dying, 468-70

Potanin, G. N., 3 ; explorations of,
19-20, 274 ; work in Turgun
Mountains, 278, 284-5 '> near
Barkul, 531 ; visits Barkul and
Kumul, 496 ; maps by, 496 ;
publication, 637

Pozdnyeiff, 22 ; publication, 638

Precipitation on Tian Shan, 379;
on Altai, 380

Prester John, 3, 11, 350, 351, 353 ;
the romance of, 353-6 ; the
accredited wealth and power of,

355

Previous Explorations. See Ex-
plorations

Price, M. P., 4, 44, 77, 94, 121, 130,
137, 138, 147, 148, 150, 152, 154,
1S5, 216, 223, 247, 251, 263, 286,
287, 289, 327, 340, 347, 399, 421 ;
cited, 418 ; publication, 638

Prjevalsky, N. M., 3, 6, 15 ; ex

ploration in Mongolia, 21, 313 ;
crossed Dzungaria, 456 ; cited,
484, 526, 626 ; visits Kumul,
496 ; near Barkul, 531 ; sights
Bogdo-ola from Urungu River,
535 ; wild- horse, 608 ; publication,
638

Protocol, Russo-Mongolian, 632-4

Ptarmigan, 140, 627, 631

Rabdan, Khan of Eleuths, 386

Radloff, D. W., 6, 21 ; publica-
tion, 638

Raemdonck, Father, 421

Rafailow, 20 ; visits Barkul and
Kumul, 496

Rafts, 119, 120, 230

Rai Lai Singh, Stein's surveyor, 498

Railway construction between Si-
beria and Mongolia, 323

Rainfall at Minnusinsk, 40 ; in
Upper Yenisei basin, 107 ; on
Turgun Mountains, 284, 285,
286 n. ; in Karlik Tagh, 513 n.,
514 ; on Bogdo-ola, 530

Rapids on Bei-Kem, 174-6

Raschid-ed-din, 200

Rashid historian, 15 n.

Ratzel, cited, 256

Ravines in Central Dzungaria, 545-
6

Red Indians, 8

Regel, 20

Reindeer (domesticated), early men-
tion of, in North Asia, 15 n., 197 ;
rock-drawings of, 50, 56 ; exist-
ence in Chinese Empire, 198 ;
their love of cold, etc., 127-8, 209 ;
dependence of Uriankhai upon,
212, 220 ; distribution of, 157;
212, 213 ; wood-carvings of, 223 ;
Uriankhai care of, 124, 230, 234,
235 ; description of Uriankhai:
measurements of, etc., 231-3 ;
Norwegian reindeer as compared
with, 231, 232 ; habitat of, 233,
234 ; southern limit of, 105, 127,
179, 626, 630 ; Uriankhai dislike
of parting with, 141

— (wild), 128, 129, 135 ; range of,

136, 157
Religion, religions of Asia, 28 ;
religion and art, 55 ; primitive,
55 ; influence of, on Uriankhai,

654

INDEX

192, 193, 211 ; early beliefs of
Uriankhai, 241 ; Shammanism
amongst Uriankhai, 241 ; an-
cestor-worship amongst Urian-
khai, 243 ; idolatry amongst
Uriankhai, 243, 253-4 ; progress
of ideas amongst Uriankhai,
241-56

Reservation for Uriankhai, 188

Rhododendron, 95

Rickmers, W. R., cited, 379 ; pub-
lication, 638

Ridgeway, Prof., 217

Riga, 30

River-terraces at Tomsk, 501

Roads. See Routes

Roborovsky, V. I., 23 ; leader of
expedition to Karlik Tagh, 497-
8 ; publication, 638

Rockhill, cited, 417

Roe-deer, 157, 582 ; in Ati Bogdo,
521, 629, 630 ; in Borotala, 566 ;
in Urta Saryk, 576 ; in Karlik
Tagh, 629 ; of Mongolia and
Dzungaria, 630

Roubles, 45, 181, 281

Routes : Achinsk to Minnusinsk,
35-7 ; to sources of Yenisei from
Siberia, 31, 32, 42-3 ; in Upper
Yenisei basin, 1 12-16, 147, 148 ;
between jMongolia and Siberia,
115, 180, 188, 274 ; taken by pil-
grims to Mecca, 365 ; from Hi
Valley to Kumul, 428 ; between
China and Sin-kiang, 444 ; be-
tween Dzungaria and Chinese
Turkestan, 447-8; between Dzun-
garia and China, 448-52 ; be-
tween Kalgan and Dzungaria,
448-52 ; between Kho-Kho-Koto
and Dzungaria, 449-52 ; over
Tou-shui Plateau, 466 ; from
Urumchi to Kumul, 447-8 ; be-
tween Barkul and Kumul, 536
Rubruck, William of, 12; cited, 61,
200, 276 n., 321, 369, 411, 417

Russian-Chinese frontier, 2, 9, 13,
^7> 35. 4^' 73 '> rnovements of
nomads, 366-7

Russians, explorers, i, 3, 6, 13, 15 ;
advance, into Central Asia, 6, 9,
13 ; into Siberia, 32, 33 ; Geo-
graphical Society, 15, 72 ; maps
40 versts, 16 ; trading expedi-
tions of, 20, 531 ; adaptability of.

33 ; ability to increase, 35 ; pro-
gress in Siberia, 34 ; traders
in Upper Yenisei basin, 152, 155,
160-73 ; as fur-hunters, 168 ; as
fishermen, 169 ; traders in I\Ion-
golia, 271, 275, 322-33; in Mon-
golia, 315-17; influence on Mon-
gols, 316 ; in Urumchi, 388, 445 ;
progress and advance on Chinese
frontier, 406, 567, 569 ; Russo-
Mongolian Protocol, 632-34

Sabie, 159-62, 173 ; we leave, 174

Sable, 207, 223

Sacrifices amongst Uriankhai, 246,
247

Safianoff, 112, 147, 154, 167, 172-3,

Sahara, 6

Saiga, 534, 552, 582 ; peculiarities
of, 590 ; habitat of, 590-1 ; na-
tive names of, 591 ; value of horns
of, 591 ; hunting of, 595-601
movements of, 597-8 ; weight,
etc., of, 598 ; habits of, 600 ; na-
tive method of hunting, 600-1;
range of, 628

Sailugem Range, 102, 191, 273, 277

Sairam Nor, 420, 432, 438, 578, 560,
583 ; Appendix B, 619 ; ancient
strands and barriers of, 619-21 ;
prevailing winds of, 620 ; la-
goons of, 620 ; salinity of, 621

Sair Mountains, 23, 404, 406 ; wild-
sheep of, 548 ; as Kirei territory,
559 ; as portion of northern
border-range of Dzungaria, 379 ;
position of, as regards life-zones,
627

Saklia River, 263 ; pass from, into
Upper Kemchik, 264 ; range, 264,
277 ; tumuli in valley of, 265

Saksai River, 22

Saljak tribe, 202, 204, 208, 212

Samoyedes, 8, 34 ; origin of, 52,
198-200, 201

Sand-belt of Southern Dzungaria,
438 ; of Central Dzungaria, 543 ;
north of Guchen, 456-63 ; in-
habitants of, 457; moving dunes
of, 460-2

Sand-dunes, in Barkul basin, 529

Sand-grouse, migrations of, 407-8

Sandstone foothills of Karlik Tagh,
479, 500, 501. 502, 503

INDEX

655

Santai, 432

Sapoznikoff, V. V., 23, 24, 371, 380,
403 ; publication, 638

Sart, meaning of name, 397 ; emi-
grants to Bogdo-ola, 465

Sasik Kul, 418

Sa-veen, 544

Saxaul forest, 459-60

Scotch Pine, T], 78

Seebohm, H., 38 ; publication, 638

Semenof, P. P., 15 ; publication, 638

Semipalatinsk, 45

Severtzoff, 6

Shabin-daba, 113

Shamman doctors, 250-3, 255

Shamar-daba Pass, 114

Shamnianism, 152, 214, 241-56 ;
amongst Uriankhai, 250-6 ;
amongst Mongols, 311 ; amongst
Siberian tribes, 61 , 364 ; secrecy of,
250-1 ; remnants of, amongst
Kirghiz, 364 ; destroyed by Islam,

364
Shammanist, 28
Shargak-taiga, 103, 107
Sharasume, 360, 395 ; described,

397-9 ; important position of,

398, 401 ; population of, 398 ;

distance from Kobdo and other

towns, 399 ; cost of transport at,

405 ; we leave, 399 ; to Urum-

chi, 542
Shensi, 51
Shi-kho, 395, 438, 439, 546 ; to

Chuguchak route, 541-2, 547 ;

kulon near, 602
Shingle-banks, at eastern end of

Sairam Nor, 617-19
Shive River, 121
Shona Nor, 480, 481
Shopoli, 511, 513-14. 515 : region to

south-east of, 514-15
Siberia, 6, 7, 13, 14 ; tribes of, 2 ;

frontier of, 5, 9 ; colonization of,

33-4; early spring in, 30 ; break-up

of winter, 30 ; Russian conquest

of 32-3 ; accessibility of, 34 ;

opening up of, 34 ; prehistoric

man in, 49
Siberian colonists, winter's work of,

76 ; types of, 80
Siberian larch. See Larch and

Larix sib trie a
Siberian servants, 82
Siberian spring, 76

II — 22

Siberian-Mongol frontier, tribes of,

199 ; nature of, 30-2, 35, 41-7 ;

delimitation of, 15 n,, 47
Sibos; 387
Sin-kiang, 387-8, 400 ; capital of,

444-7 ; Chinese settlers in, 436 n.
Sin Taiga, 159
Sisti-Kem, 94, 105, 154 ; depot on,

118
Skobieff ranch, iii, 155
Skulls, types of in tumuli, 70
Snow, distribution of, in Southern

Dzungaria, 438
Snow-cock, of Karlik Tagh, 629 ; of

Ati Bogdo, 629 ; of Mongolia and

Dzungaria, 632
Snow-leopards, 582, 631
Snuff-bottles amongst Mongols, 62,63
Soiot, 124, 199-201
Solons, 387

Songares. See Dzungars
Sosnovski, 20 ; visits Kumul, 495 ;

publication, 638
Spring, at Kushabar, 76, 77 ; in

Karlik Tagh, 512 ; in Southern

Dzungaria, 534
Spruce-tree, yy ; Tian Shan, 627 ;

of Karlik Tagh, 516-7 n., 629
Squirrels, southern limit of, 626
Stag, Yarkand, 582 ; in Central

Dzungaria, 542, 608-9
Stamboul, 8
Stefansson, 217
Stein, 22 ; astronomical position for

Kumul, 496 ; explorations in

Karlik Tagh, 498 ; on antiquities

of Am-Tam, 504-5 ; estimate of

altitude for peaks of Karlik

Tagh, 624 ; publication, 638
Steppe between Achinsk and Min-

nusinsk, 36 ; conditions in the

Upper Yenisei basin, 103-5, 108,

1 12-13
Stocks, i.e. unwrought stones, 56,

58 ; around tumuli, 66
Stone-effigy, 60, 61
Strands of Uriu Nor, 286-7 ; of

Sairam Nor, 617-19; of Bar Kul,

533
Su-chow, 514

Suok, 323, 324, 325 ; river, 327
Surveying in Upper Yenisei Basin,

132, 133 ; in Turgun Mountains,

283, 288-9
Stis scrofa nigripes, 567

6=i6

INDEX

Sutai, 433

Sut Kill, 185

Swayne, Major, 331 n.

Syansk, 17, 31, 32, 36 ; routes over,
42, 43 ; first indication of, 45 ;
Minnusinsk to, 45 ; view of, from
Kushabar, 84 ; approach from,
S^ ; foothills of, 92 ; watershed
crossed, 92 ; impression of, from
Algiak Pass, 94 ; length of, 100 ;
description of, loo-i ; flora of,
105 ; tracks across, 113 ; water-
shed of, 134 ; reindeer of, 232

Sythians, 197

Taghliks, mountaineers of Karlik
Tagh, 4S6, 502, 306, 507, 525 ;
compared with Kumuliks, 507-8 ;
character of, 507-8, 526 ; influ-
ence of Chinese on, 508 ; semi-
nomadic, 523 ; environment of,
526

Taiga (forest), first view of, 46 ;
impenetrability of, 74 ; atmo-
sphere of, 89-90, 95-6 ; travel in
the, 86, 91

Taiga (rocky uplifts), in Upper
Yenisei basin, 95, 131, 137, 139;
venerated by Uriankhai, 244-5

Takianzi, 435-7 ; gazelle-hunting at,

583
Tal, 520-1

Ta lao Yang (large-headed-sheep),
392

Talki Pass, 378, 428, 430, 432

Tamarisk mounds, 468-70

Tamerlane, Timur, 34

Tannu-ola, 3, 17, 21, 23, 100, 201 ;
length of, description of, loi ; al-
titude of, 10 1 ; difference between
and Syansk, 10 1 ; snowfall of,
III, 192 ; routes across, 114, 115 ;
as natural boundary of Siberia,
166 ; as seen from Cha-Kul, 182 ;
ascent of, 190 ; character of, 190 ;
we cross the, 195 ; impressions
from summit of, 257-9 ; south
side of, 261 ; wild-sheep of, 345 ;
as dividing-line between Siberian
and Mongolian fauna, 624-5

Tapsa Valley, 157, 167, 172

Taranchi, 486

Tarbagatai INIountains, as Kirei ter-
ritory, 359 ; as northern border-

range of Dzungaria, 379, 389, 406 ;

sheep of, 548, 627, 628
Ta Shar, 486, 503-4
Tash-bulak, 4S6, 511, 514
Ta-shih-tu, 378, 464, 466-7, 588,

591 ; revisited, 534 ; Bogdo-ola

peaks seen from, 535 ; wild-sheep

of, 593, 593

Tash-kil Range, 130

Tashkil, 103, 159

Tastandi Range, loi

Tartar, 199

Tartary. See Mongolia

Tchihatcheff, P. de, 18 ; publica-
tion, 638

Tekes Valley, 391

Telli Nor, 381, 543

Tengri, good spirit, 254, 256

Tepee, 124

Teri Nor, 194

Tess Valley, 24, 114, 150, 274;
Amban of, 205

Tetrao urogallus, 626

Tetrco tetrix, 626

Tetrastis bonasia, 626

Tetraogallus altaicus 632 ; hima-
layensis, 632

Thomas, Oldfield, 567

Tian Shan, 18, 21, 25, 378, 439, 440 ;
as southern border-range of
Dzungaria, 378 ; as insular moun-
tain-group, 418, 628 ; at south of
Manas, 442 ; of Urumchi, 390 ;
influence on Dzungaria, 379 ;
Torguts of, 390 ; viewed from
Ala-tau, 555 ; viewed from Cen-
tral Dzungaria, 543

Tian Shan- Altai divide, 347, 462-3,
497, 628

Tibet, 16, 17, 21, 106

Tiger, 542, 582, 609, 610, 631

Tihua-Tihua-fu, 443, 444 n. See
Urumchi

Togucha, 477; Buddhist remains
at, 477, 499 ; visited by Lecoq
and Griinwedel, 499; "Kariz"
at, 479 n. ; Iti Kul near, 481,
486

Toji, tribe, 125, 146, 149, 154, 156,
202, 204, 212 ; Noj'Onof, 148; dis-
tinction between, and other Urian-
khai, 208 ; migration of, 209-10 ;
religious ceremony amongst, 247-
50 ; wrestling-match amongst,
223

INDEX

>57

Toji Kul, 148, 152, 153, 170, 209,
229

Toll Lake, 480-2

Tomdun, 523, 524, 525

Tomsk, 24

Tomyukuk, Turkish hero, 67

Toran, 112

Torguts, 360, 386-7, 389-90 ; num-
bers of, who migrated to Russia,
390 n. ; Kobuk section of, 391 n. ;
390-1, 404-5 ; two sections of,
in Dzungaria, 389-90 ; in Kran
Valley, 398, 401 ; migration of,
393 ; of Bartik Bogdo, 462 ; of
Edsin Gol, 520

Tortsi-bek, chief of Torguts, 391 n.

Toruk, 486 ; visited by Stein, 498 ;
country between Kumul and,
50 ; we visit, 501-3 ; description
of, 501-2 ; revisited, 526

Tou-shui, 378, 526 ; plateau, 466-
7, 468, 533, 630 ; explored by
Grum-Grjimailo, 497 ; as dividing-
line between Tian Shan zone and
Karlik Tagh, 629-30

Trade between Mongolia and Rus-
sia, 322-3 ; between China and
Dzungaria, 449-52 ; India and
Chinese Turkestan, 449

Trade-routes of Asia, 425-6

Trans-Baikalia, 199

Transcaspia, 6

Transport, in Upper Yenisei basin,
184, 194 ; in Mongolia, 279, 280 ;
between China and Dzungaria,
449-55 ; cost of, 449, 450

Travel, difficulties of, in winter, 422

Tsagan Gol, 22

Tszouselan, 266 n.

Tuba, race, 49, 124, 199, 200 ;
Chinese form of, 200

Tuba River, 41, 200, 202

Tumuli, 36, 49 ; constructed by
Uigurs, 53, 65-72 ; two types of,
66 ; size of, 66 ; contents of, 68 ;
skulls found in, 70

Tungan. See Dungan

Tunguse, 15 n., 32, 33, 70, 199, 201,
212, 231, 236, 241

Turfan, apricots of, 398 ; settlers
in Dzungaria, 464

Turgun Mountains, 3, 192, 205 ;
early visitors to, 20, 22 ; first sight
of, 266 ; nomenclature, 266 n. ;
as Durbet territory, 272-3 ; as

II — 22*

home of Durbet Mongols, 267-7 ;
square mileage of, 277 ; character
of, 277-8 ; Peak, 281 ; River,
282 ; precipitation in, 284-5 '•
temperature in, 285 ; vegetation
in, 308 ; fauna of, 626-7

Turk, 8

Turkestan, Chinese, 4, 9, 22 ; Rus-
sian, 4 ; in general, 16, 17

Tur Kul, 493, 522, 523 ; visited by
Kozlofi, 498 ; salinity of, 524 ;
bird-life of, 524 ; compared with
Bar Kul, 533

Ubasi Khan, Torgut leader, 391

Ubsa Nor, 22, 116, 192, 205, 261,
266, 273-5, 277, 285 ; Khan of,
205, 228 ; salt of basin, 221

Ugro-Samoyede, 52

Ugut, 121

Uigurs, 8, 198-9, 218, 352, 382,
383-4, 388 ; origin of, 51 ; of
Kossogol, 199, 200 ; plateau,
361 ; river, 325 ; valley, 344 ;
dominion over Kumul, 476,
504-5 ; of Karlik Tagh, 505

Uiuk River, 43, 177, 203 ; valley,
105 ; village, 112 ; pass, 113

Ulan-daba Pass, 345

Ulan Kom, 262 ; as residence of
Wang of Durbets, 274 ; import-
ance of, 274

Uliassutai, 19, 20, 113, 114, 115, 150,
164, 188, 204, 272, 272 n., 450,

451
Ulu-Kem, 98, 103, 107, 203 ; unites

with Kemchik, 108 ; free from

ice, 109 ; navigation of, 109, no ;

velocity of, 109, 179; rises in

flood. III

Ulungur Lake, 19, 357, 401, 402 ;
supposed connexion with Irtish,
402-3 ; salinity of, 403 : wild-
horses near, 608

Ulu-tai, 511

Ulu-taiga, 317, 139

Unwrought stones. See Monoliths

Upper Yenisei basin. See Yenisei

Ural Mountains, 29, 33

Urga, 22, 114, 150, 180, 269, 451;
Dalai Lama, 194

Urge, 522

Uriangut, 199, 201

Uriankhai, 2 : earliest mention of.

658

INDEX

15 n. ; origin of, 51 ; religious
ideas of, 58, 137; first signs of,
122 ; introduction to, 124 ; Ala-
su, encampment of, 124-8 ; yearly
movements of, 132 ; Buddhistic
ceremony, 151 ; as fishermen,
153 ; as watermen, 153 ; encamp-
ment near Skobiefi, 156 ; lamas,
151. 193 ; limits of territory,
188, 260 ; religion, 192-4 ; reli-
gious ceremony, 193-4 ; religious
ideas of, 241-56 ; early history
of, 198, 199, 204 ; nomenclature
of, 199 ; tribes of Oinar and On-
dar, 200 ; of Kossogol, 201 ; of
Altai, 200 ; affinities with Aba-
kan Tartars, 200, 201 ; distribu-
tion of, 201, 202 ; area of ter-
ritory, 201 ; estimate of, popula-
tion, 202 ; tribal division of, 202,
203 ; tribal areas delimitated, 203 ;
administration of, 204, 205 ; ab-
sorption by Siberians, 206 ; La-
maism amongst, 192, 193, 206;
taxes imposed upon, 206-8, 228 ;
nomadic tendencies of, 208-11,

214 ; reindeer-keeping section,
209 ; sheep and cattle rearing
section, 210-11 ; effect of religion
upon, 211 ; domestic economy of,
212 ; differences between rein-
deer-clans and others, 208, 209,
236, 237, 240 ; distribution of
reindeer-clans, 212, 213 ; isola-
tion of, 213 ; character of, 131,
213, 214, 215 ; laziness of, 172,

215 ; shyness of, 215 ; dealings
of, with Russian traders, 163, 164,
215 ; ethnographical affinities of,
18, 126, 215; average height of,
216; hair of, 216-18; " blond-
ness " of, 217, 218 ; hair-dressing,
218 ; dress, headgear, boots, 219 ;
food, 220 ; fur-hunting, 221 ; de-
sire for children, 222 ; melancholia
of, 222 ; musical instruments, 222 ;
wood-carvings, 223 ; wrestling,
224-5 ; skill in hunting, 225-8 ;
dogs, 227-8 ; as fishermen, 229 ;
as watermen, 229, 230 ; singing,

229, 230 ; herding of reindeer,

230, 234, 235 ; riding reindeer,
235; use of reindeer, 235-6;
Mongolized section of, 237 ;
use of yurts, 238 ; herds of, 238 ;

horses of, 238 ; use of lasso, 239-
40 ; Shammanism amongst, 241,
256 ; ancestor worship amongst,
61, 243 ; idolatry amongst, 243,
253-4 ; belief in a Supreme Being,
244, 253-6 ; effect of environ-
ment upon, 214, 242-4 ; of Altai,
325. 326, 327

Uriu Nor, 266, 273, 277, 286, 287

Urkashar Mountains, 389, 406,
407 ; as portion of northern
border-range of Dzungaria, 379;
position of, between life-zones of
Central Asia, 627, 628 ; wild-
sheep of, 548

Urkhogaitu Pass, 370, 373, 373 n.

Urta Saryk Valley, 560, 568, 576 ;
ibex in, 576-7, 578

Urumchi, 4, 382, 383, 399 ; seat of
government, 395 ; as site of
ancient Uigur capital, 383-4 ;
nomenclature of, 443-4, 444 n. ;
position of, 444 ; population of,
445 ; postal service to and from,
445-6 ; to Guchen, 447-8 ; from,
to Kumul, 447-8

Urungu River, 19, 381 ; Torguts of,
391 ; as Kirei territory, 358, 359

Usinsk Range, 96 ; town, 42, 165,
180

Uss River, 103, no ; pass, 113

Utt River, 202, 203

Uturuk, 52T, 522

Vacelkoff, 163

Vambery, A., cited, 366, 618 ; pub-
lication, 638

Vegetation in Dzungaria, 382, 377.
See also Forests

Verkhoyansk, 34

Vladimir Riedel, 63, 64

Vladimirtsoff, B. V., 272, 274 ;
publication, 639

Wang, dog, 595
Wang-fu, 262-3
Wapiti deer, 161, 162, 179, 227 ;

in Altai, 344, 422, 582 ; in Urta

Saryk, 576 ; in Karlik Tagh, 627 ;

of Mongolia and Dzungaria, 628
Wiggins, Capt., 38
Wild-ass, 439, 460, 582, 628. See also

Kulon

INDEX

659

Wild-horse, 626, 628

Wild-pig, 566-7, 582, 631

Wild-sheep, 264, 439, 466, 582 ; in
Borotala Valley, 561-74, 568,
569 ; in Ala-tau, 567 ; of Karlik
Tagh, 517 n. ; of Ati-Bogdo, 521 ;
of Mongolia and Dzungaria, 630.
See also Ovis ammon, etc.

Winds, prevailing, of Guchen dis-
trict, 460-1 ; of Dzungarian Gate,
413 ; tradition concerning, 413

Winter, in Dzungaria, effect on
animals, 439 ; in Central Asia,
424, 425 ; difficulties of travel
in, 422

Wolves, 557, 558

Wooden images of animals, 246

Yaks, 275, 276 n. ; on Karlik Tagh,
526

Yakub Beg, 476

Yamachu glacier 287 ; Peak, 287 ;
valley, 287 Plateau, 288-90

Yandzhikhai, 439 ; kulon near,
602

Yarkand, 4, 579

Yenisei, Upper, basin, 2 ; recent
changes in, 26 ; character of, 74 ;
earliest mention of, 15 n. ; lack
of knowledge of, 17, 25 ; early
exploration of, 18, 26 ; antiqui-
ties of, 24 ; routes to, from
Siberia, 31 ; routes from Minnu-
sinsk, 42, 43 ; difficulties of
access, 75, 80; first view of , 93-
6 ; scenery in, 95 ; orographic-
ally, politically, and physically,
97 ; area of, 98 ; hydrography of,
98, 107-8 ; topography of, 98-1 1 7 ;
average altitude of, 99 ; border-
ranges of, 99 ; northern wall of,
100; southern wall of , 101,147-
8 ; protective nature of border
ranges, 102 ; western wall of, 102 ;
eastern wall of, 102, 107, 135 ;
orography of, 103 ; vegetation
zones of, 104-6, 160, 178 ; advance
of steppe conditions in, 104, 150,
178; rainfall in, 107; drainage

from, 108 ; river-transport in,
109-110 ; meteorology of, no,
III ; climate of, 112 ; routes
across, 11 2-1 6; land-character
of, 106; central portion of, 112,
1 78-9 ; unexplored portion of, 117;
scenery in eastern portion of,
145-6; routes from, to Baikal,
147; rivers, the life of, 155;
cultivation in, 161, 173, 183, 184 ;
Russian advance into, 163-5 '•
tribes of, 164-73 ; Russian ab-
sorption of, 166; furs of, 168,
221, 207; fisheries of, 169-70;
temperature in, 184 ; as Uri-
ankhai reserve, 201 ; popula-
tion of, 202, 214 ; furbearing
animals of, 207 ; pasture in, 211 ;
fauna and flora of, 624-7, 630-
2 ; musk-deer of, 630 ; roe-deer
of, 630

Yenisei River, sources of, i, 3, 107 ;
frozen over, 30 ; arrival of Rus-
sians on, 33 ; divide between, and
Ob-Irtish, 36 ; near Minnusinsk,
36, 37 ; navigation between Kras-
noyarsk and Minnusinsk, 37 ;
break-up of ice on, 38-9 ; size of,
39 ; meaning of name, 39 n. ;
navigation above Minnusinsk,
109 ; rapids above Minnusinsk,
no ; early inhabitants in neigh-
bourhood of, 198-9, 205

Yeniseians, 49, 199 ; early beliefs of,
55 ; in Bronze Age, 70 ; as
mineralogists, 70, 168

Yeniseisk, 16, 44

Yermak, 32, 33

Younghusband, F. E., 3, 22, 291,
346-7, 517 n.; visits Kumul,
497 ; publication, 639

Yulduz Plateau, 390, 391 ; wild-
sheep of, 569, 570-1

Yule, Col. M., 472

Zaisan Lake, 20, 357, 401, 406, 542
Zalanash Lake, 416, 417
Zungar. See Dzungar
Zungaria. See Dzungaria

PRINTED BY

HAZELL, WATSOM AND VDTEY, LD.,

LONDON AND AYLESBURY.

DATE DUE

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Unknown Mongolia

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